All About Dna

Who Crossed the Bering Land Bridge?

2008-03-11T12:38:00.000-07:00

How many founding Asian groups braved their way across the Bering land bridge during those frigid Pleistocene ice ages? Was it a single wave of people who later developed into the three distinct linguistic and cultural groups that populated the Americas, or were there multiple waves of people each with their own language and culture? Or was it some mix of the two? The issue has been and continues to be a topic of debate.
Linguistic studies of the Na-dene, Aleut-Eskimo, and Amerind language groups suggested that there were three waves across the land bridge, one for each language group. Recent genetic research, however, has suggested that there was only a single wave of founding groups into the Americas. (Read a free online review here).
Let’s assume, for the moment, that there was only a single wave of migration into the Americas over the Bering land bridge. The next obvious question might be, who was in that group? Like the previous question, this one can also be addressed with recent advances in genetic research, particularly the use of mitochondrial DNA. The current dogma (which in your opinion may or may not be struck down by today’s article) is that there were 5 founding haplogroups – A, B, C, D, and X. Indeed, the vast majority of Native Americans tested in modern times as well as ALL previous ancient remains have belonged to one of those five haplogroups.
A new study from a group of American and Canadian anthropologists has revealed the existence of sixth founding haplogroup in prehistoric Native Americans. DNA was extracted from the remains of two individuals found together in central British Columbia dated at 4950 +/- 170 years old and the haplogroup was analyzed through sequencing. Both individuals belonged to haplogroup M with the mutations 16093, 16213, and 16223. This is the first time that haplogroup M has been detected in Native American samples, either modern or prehistoric. Importantly, haplogroup M is found in Siberia, the source of the Native American’s ancestors.
What impact does this have on Native American studies? Together this study and another, discussed recently here on this blog, suggest that more than five haplogroups settled the Americas, and within each haplogroup there may have been more than a single haplotype. This could significantly reduce many of the estimates for the timing of the peopling of the Americas.

Governmental Regulation of Genetic Genealogy Tests?

2008-03-11T12:37:00.000-07:00

Senator Edward Kennedy (D-Massachusetts) proposed a piece of legislation before the United States Senate on 1 March 2007 called the “Laboratory Test Improvement Act.” The Act is proposed as a series of amendments to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA).
Sen. Kennedy’s statement(pdf) before the Senate, found in the Congressional Record from this month, defines his goal as “[ensuring] the quality of clinical tests used every day in hospitals and doctors’ offices across the country.” Additionally, he pointed out that the “tests are being used to diagnose illnesses, predict who is most susceptible to specific diseases, and identify persons who carry a genetic disease that they could pass on to their children.”
On his website Sen. Kennedy posted a news release that clarified his position:
“The legislation will mandate that all providers of “homebrew” laboratory tests provide the FDA with evidence that verifies their analytical and clinical validity. All of the information submitted to the FDA will be compiled into a database, which will subsequently be made available to the public on the Internet. Presently, an overwhelming majority of the laboratory tests employed by health care facilities are homebrew tests that have not been approved by the FDA. In some instances, homebrew tests are used to diagnose Huntington’s disease and susceptibility to breast cancer. As such, the results of homebrew tests affect the lives of thousands of Americans and their families each and every year.”
Sen. Smith (R-Oregon), co-sponsor of this Act and Ranking Member of the Senate Special Committee on Aging, chaired a hearing in 2006 entitled “At Home DNA Tests: Marketing Scam or Medical Breakthrough?” that addressed the lack of regulation of “homebrew” genetic testing products.
So will this legislation affect the thousands of genetic genealogy tests sold by DNA laboratories in the United States? Most likely not, since genetic genealogy tests do not appear to fall under the ‘intent’ of the Laboratory Test Improvement Act. Rather, it would seem to include companies such as the nutrigenomics company MyCellf (discussed in a previous post) which screens DNA for gene variants associated with disease. Currently, genetic genealogy tests do not intentionally diagnose obvious disease variants (could CCR5, offered by FTDNA, be considered part of this group?).
The Laboratory Test Improvement Act defines a “laboratory-developed test” as one that uses “analytical methods developed by a laboratory to process a biological specimen, whether at 1 laboratory site or multiple sites, to report a test result to a health care practitioner, a patient, or a consumer; and includes an in vitro diagnostic product that the laboratory has modified, unless such modification requires preclearance or preapproval of such modified in vitro diagnostic product under this Act.”
The Act specifically excludes:1) “the processing of a biological specimen to: a) determine paternity, b) aid in forensics, or c) conduct research if the result of the test is not reported to a health care provider, a patient, or a consumer;2) An in vitro diagnostic product; or3) An analyte specific reagent [defined in the Code of Federal Regulations].”
The Act also states that laboratory-developed tests shall be classified as a “device” under section 201(h) of the FFDCA. Section 201(h) defines device as “an instrument, apparatus, implement, machine, contrivance, implant, in vitro reagent, or other similar or related article, including any component, part, or accessory, which is [among other things] intended for use in the diagnosis of disease or other conditions, or in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease, in man…”
Based on the ‘intent’ of the legislation (suggested by Sen. Kennedy’s press release and statements before the Senate) and the definitions contained in the Act, it is unlikely that tests offered for genetic genealogy will fall under the scope of the Laboratory Test Improvement Act.
It is possible that companies offering genetic genealogy testing might be forced to comply with the Laboratory Test Improvement Act in the future if the scope of their sequencing grows. As whole-genome sequencing becomes cheaper and cheaper, companies will want to offer many more options to their customers, including disease gene variants. After all, unless the mutation is spontaneous we inherited the variant from our ancestors. Already the media is filled with stories of whole families that possess a dangerous allele and are submitting their DNA for testing. The line between testing for genealogical purposes and for purely genetic purposes is fading. That being said, the Laboratory Test Improvement Act clearly does not forbid any of the testing described. New “homebrew” tests will be allowed to come onto the market without FDA review provided they a warning that they have not been FDA-cleared or –approved. Perhaps this could benefit consumers by preventing testing by companies who offer sub-par services.
The Text of the proposed legislation is available here. Here is a blog discussion of the legislation and a news article that mentions Genelex, a company that offers both genetic genealogy tests and disease gene screening.
What are your opinions on this topic?

DNA Testing Jumps During Black History Month

2008-03-11T12:35:00.000-07:00

With the arrival of Black History Month and following on the heels of PBS’s popular series ‘African American Lives’, increasing numbers of African Americans are deciding to explore the world of DNA testing and genetic genealogy. As a result many newspapers and magazines are taking the opportunity to introduce their readers to this increasingly popular avenue of genealogical research.
The Rocky Mountain News in Denver, Colorado is currently three articles into a six-part series examining the role and effect of genetic genealogy in African American research [Thanks to Genealogy Reviews Online]:
Saturday, 17 February 2007 (Two articles, here and here).Monday, 19 February 2007 Tuesday, 20 February 2007 Wednesday, 21 February 2007 Thursday, 22 February 2007 Friday, 23 February 2007
Fortune Magazine published an article, ‘Tracing African Roots Through DNA’, on February 16th in which the author uses the DNA testing firm African Ancestry to analyze his mtDNA and Y chromosome. The article also describes the (positive) psychological effects the results have on himself and his family.
Another magazine, Diverse: Issues in Higher Education has an older article, ‘Regaining a Lost Heritage‘. The author of this article also tests her mtDNA through African Ancestry. Interestingly, the author cites Dr. Bruce A. Jackson, Co-director of the African-American DNA Roots Project at the University of Massachusetts Lowell. Dr. Jackson explains his skepticism of African Ancestry’s ability to pinpoint a person’s mtDNA or Y chromosome ancestry to a single ethnic or geographic group because the databases are still so small. African Ancestry, however, contends that their DNA database is 5 times larger than any other comparable databases.

dna genes in fashion

2008-03-11T12:30:00.000-07:00

Here are some recent news articles that mention the use of genetics in traditional genealogy:
Internet databases, DNA testing make genealogy an easy pursuit - but only for some – An Associated Press story about the use of DNA testing for people researching genealogy in countries (such as Asia, Africa, etc…) with few online databases.
Genes in fashion – The anthropology department of the California State University has tested the DNA of hundreds of students to create an exhibit called “Immigrants All! Our Migration Tales and Genetic Trails” in the department’s museum.
To Whom Else Does Your DNA Belong? – A response to reporter Amy Harmon’s recent story in the New York Times. Although I don’t agree with the strict opposition voiced in this student article, the title is very similar to the title I chose for my own response.
McCoy tempers in famed feud may have genetic cause – Many of the McCoy’s, one of America’s most famous feuding families, have a genetically inherited disease caused Von Hippel-Landau which cause tumors of the adrenal gland. This can lead to high blood pressure and hot tempers. It turns out that geneticists have been studying and publishing about the family for over 30 years and have traced the disease through at least 4 generations.
Rogue-gene discovery could end family’s tragedy – Another story about using genetics and genealogy to trace the distribution of a devastating mutant gene through a family. This gene, which triggers stomach cancer, has ravaged at least 5 generations of a family in New Zealand.

From the NYT: DNA Tests Offer Immigrants Hope or Despair

2008-03-11T12:28:00.003-07:00

Although the article in today’s New York Times - “DNA Tests Offer Immigrants Hope or Despair” by Rachel L. Swarns - uses traditional paternity or maternity tests and not genetic genealogy tests, the emotional results of the tested can often be the same. What if DNA proves that your father isn’t your biological father? What happens when there is uncontestable proof that there was an NPE (non-paternal event) in your great-grandfather’s ancestry?
According to the article, federal officials in the Immigration Department are using “genetic testing to verify the biological bonds between new citizens and the overseas relatives they hope to bring here, particularly those from war-torn or developing countries where identity documents can be scarce or doctored.”
For example, Isaac has been in the U.S. away from his native Ghana and his four boys for 14 years. When he became an American citizen and the Immigration Department suggested that he take a DNA test to prove the biological relationship to his four sons, he agreed. Unfortunately, only the oldest boy was his biological child. That child could come to the U.S., but Isaac would have to find another way to bring over the other three children.
How often does this happen? “Mary K. Mount, a DNA testing expert for the A.A.B.B. - formerly known as the American Association of Blood Banks - estimates that about 75,000 of the 390,000 DNA cases that involved families in 2004 were immigration cases. Of those, she estimates, 15 percent to 20 percent do not produce a match.” That’s over 10,000 cases in one year alone!
Interestingly, many lawyers working with immigrants believe that the government’s use of DNA testing burdens immigrants because of the high price of the testing - as much as $450 to test a parent and child. As well, federal officials “acknowledge that genetic testing can carry an emotional toll.”
This is true for any type of testing, be it a paternity test, an mtDNA test, or (someday) a full genomic sequencing. Everyone has a picture of their own past in their mind, a collection of beliefs and identities that they’ve learned or heard or perhaps have made up. Evidence of another past based on DNA can often shatter those beliefs.
As these families struggle to come to terms with the results of the testing, they often come to the conclusion that the biological definition of family is not the only definition available. My favorite line in the story comes from Balfour Francis, a 44-year-old Jamaican-born welder in Brooklyn who is trying to have his daughter join him in America. After the DNA test showed that he is not the girl’s father, he stated, “I will not let anybody dictate who is my child.” Although the results can be painful and have a severe emotional toll, they do not change the love a parent has for a child.
As for Isaac, his immigration lawyer determined “that he could petition for the teenagers as their stepfather. He must prove that the boys are the children of his deceased wife. Isaac hopes that a DNA test of one of his wife’s siblings, which could be compared with that of the teenagers, would provide that proof.”
I highly recommend reading this article if you are interested in DNA testing. I’m sure that this will spark another wave of insightful and interesting discussion on the blogosphere, similar to the very controversial article I discussed previously here.

Faces of Britain

2008-03-11T12:28:00.001-07:00

In 2005 the Wellcome Trust established a £2.3 million project (roughly 4.5 million USD) at the University Oxford to examine the genetic makeup of the United Kingdom. The project would be led by the renowned geneticist and Oxford Professor Sir Walter Bodmer, joined by Oxford Professor Peter Donnelly (a population genetics and statistics expert) and the Wellcome Trust Principal Research Fellow Professor Lon Cardon.
The goal of the project is to establish a knowledge base for analyzing genes that are linked to disease. To do this, the researchers hoped to gather DNA from 3000 to 3500 volunteers throughout the UK who live in the same area as their parents and grandparents. Each volunteer’s DNA will be tested for 2000 SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms). The data will be combined with each volunteer’s medical history in the attempt to find a link between genetic make-up and the inheritability or susceptibility of a number of diseases such as diabetes and Alzheimer’s. The data will also be used to isolate DNA sequences that characterize the founders of each region of the UK, be they Viking, Saxon, or Celt.
“Our aim is to characterise the genetic make-up of the British population and relate this to the historical and archaeological evidence,” says Professor Bodmer. “We are collecting samples from people in rural areas with all four grand parents from the same area so as to avoid the recent mixing up of populations in urban areas and to reach back in time as far as possible.
“Our samples will provide a valuable control for studies on disease susceptibility which depend on comparing the frequency of genetic markers in disease groups with that in control groups. If we are able to eliminate genetic markers linked to geography rather than disease, then we should be able to minimise the risk of finding spurious associations.”
To date, the researchers have collected approximately 1,500 samples and have analyzed the Y chromosomes of the male volunteers. The M17 variant of the Y chromosome, for example, is found in 20% of people from Norway but is very rare elsewhere in Western Europe. In the Orkney Island, almost 30% of the tested males have this variant, suggesting that the Norse Vikings settled the Islands. Surprisingly, the M17 variant is not found in areas where the Danish Vikings settled, supporting the conclusion that the Norse and Danish Vikings were genetically different.
Another interesting conclusion of the study so far is that two rare versions of the Mc1r gene occur at a much higher frequency in those areas that were settled by the Celts than in those areas settled by the Anglo-Saxons. These alleles of Mc1r are found in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and regions of southwest England and are associated with red hair. In fact, Mc1r (melanocortin-1 receptor) is a member of the G-protein-coupled receptor family of proteins and it functions at the surface of specialized pigment producing cells called melanocytes. It is one of the key proteins in regulating hair and skin color.
Faces of Britain on Channel 4:
The researchers have also begun to present some of their findings to the public via the television series “Faces of Britain.” Last Saturday, April 14th, Channel 4 in Britain aired a program that highlighted the study’s current findings.
The findings, according to the program, supported the idea that the Viking invasion of Britain was predominately from Danish Vikings while the Orkney Islands were settled by Norse Vikings. Additionally, the results suggest that the Cornish people are a Celtic race that are more closely related to the Welsh than to their British neighbors (or should I say, neighbours).
The next Faces of Britain will be aired this Saturday, April 21st, but if you hurry you can watch the previous episode online for free (until Saturday) at www.channel4.com/od/.

Faces of Britain – The Book:
The study has also resulted in a book published in January of this year - “Face of Britain: How Our Genes Reveal the History of Britain” by Robin McKie. The book is available on the UK version of Amazon but I couldn’t find it here in the U.S.
Here is the publishers synopsis:
“Written into our facial features is a story going back generations. It is the story of who we are and where we are from - the history of Britain through war and conquest, migration and racial integration. The Channel 4 series, The Face of Britain, begins with the largest ever research project into the genetic make-up of the British public. The Welcome Trust has given a GBP2million grant to Oxford geneticist Sir Walter Bodmer to take DNA samples from hundreds of volunteers throughout Britain and find tell-tale fragments of DNA that reveal the biological traces of successive waves of colonisers - Celts, Saxons, Vikings, etc. - in various parts of Britain. These traces in part determine our facial features. In effect, this project will produce a genetic map of our islands revealing where today’s Cornish or East Anglians originally came from. The project is unique in that it uses cutting edge technology to question our accepted notions of our history. Added to this, the series and the book will meld science, history and personal stories to investigate our linguistic history, our surnames and placenames and compare findings with the results of the Bodmer study. The Face of Britain will be a launch pad to explore Britain’s earliest history while investigating why we look the way we do.”
Thanks to SpiritIndia.

Are aboriginal Australians and New Guineans the modern-day descendants of the extinct species Homo erectus?

2008-03-11T12:27:00.001-07:00

Some scientists have hypothesized that Australian aboriginals received a portion of their DNA from an ancient hominid species called Homo erectus, which for a short time was contemporaneous with modern man. A recent study published in PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of the Sciences) set out to answer this question by analyzing mtDNA and Y-chromosome samples from aboriginals.
A total of 172 mtDNA and 522 Y-chromosome previously published and new sequences from aboriginal Australians and New Guineans were analyzed for mtDNA and Y-chromosome variation and were compared to the current world haplogroup tree. All of the mtDNA sequences were members of the M and N founder branches, and all of the Y-chromosome sequences fell into the C and F founder branches.
The results suggest that the Australian aboriginals are descendants of the same emigrant group that left Africa 50,000 to 70,000 years ago and populated Europe and Asia. At least from the small number of samples analyzed for this study, there does not seem to be any DNA contribution from Homo erectus.
The uniformity of the sequences suggests that once humans migrated into the region there was little other gene flow. This might explain why the Australian and New Guinean populations share phenotypic features that are unique to the region.
You can read more about this new study at National Geographic or NewScientist, or read the article online for free at PNAS. Additionally, Ron Scott at Scott Genealogy has provided a transcript (pdf) of an interview with Toomas Kivisild (one of the authors of the study and a name that many genetic genealogists will recognize).

Famous DNA Review, Part II – Genghis Khan

2008-03-11T12:26:00.000-07:00

In 2003, researchers from around the world released a paper that suggested that 8% of all Mongolian males have a common Y chromosome because they are the descendants of Genghis Khan (See “The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols,” 2003, Zerjal, et. al., American Journal of Human Genetics, 72: 717-721). The researchers examined the Y chromosome variability of over 2000 people from different regions in Asia and discovered a grouping of closely related lines. The cluster is believed to have originated about 1,000 years ago in Mongolia and its distribution coincides with the boundaries of the Mongol Empire.
Genghis Khan’s empire (he ruled from 1206 – 1227) stretched across Asia from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea and was reportedly extremely prolific. Khan’s son Tushi had as many as 40 sons. His grandson Kublai Khan is reported to have had as many as 22 sons, and perhaps many more. Together this family may have as many as 16 million descendants alive in Asia today. It is extremely important to note that until DNA can be extracted from Khan’s bones (which have never been found), there is no definitive proof that this Y chromosome cluster is actually descended from Genghis Khan.
When Family Tree DNA compared the markers in the paper to their database they determined that the Y chromosome cluster belongs to Haplogroup C3 (M217+). Forty-seven samples in their database exactly matched the markers identified in the paper. The company has summarized the marker results from the paper and have made that information freely available.
A newly released study from Russian scientists examined the Y chromosomes of 1,437 men from 18 Asian ethnic groups (Altai Kazakhs, Altai-Khizhis, Teleuts, Khakasses, Shor, Tuvinians, Todjins, Tofalars, Soyotes, Buryats, Khamnigans, Evenks, Mongolians, Kalmyks, Tajiks, Kurds, Persians and Russians). The researchers discovered that approximately 35% of Mongolians possess the “Khan” Y chromosome. Surprisingly, the results of the study suggest that although the Mongol Empire held eastern Russia for 250 years, there are few “Khan” Y chromosome carriers in that region.
You can read more about the 2007 study at UK Channel 4 or at Scientific Blogging.

Lotsa Links - Forbes Magazine and Genetic Genealogy

2008-03-11T12:25:00.000-07:00

The Forbes Series – Forbes has an excellent series of articles relating to genomic sequencing and genetic genealogy. It is well-timed and full of interesting things to think about. I highly recommend reading them all!
1. Will You Get Cancer?
2. The Telltale Tumor
3. Never Mind You – What About Me?
4. Genes of the Rich and Famous
5. Genealogy Gets Genetic
6. 12 Genes That Could Change Your Life

“Genome of DNA Pioneer is Deciphered” - This is a write-up by Nicholas Wade in the New York Times. Unfortunately, Mr, Wade used the word ‘deciphered’ in the article rather than ‘sequenced’. I’m not convinced that this was his choice, but he’s getting some flack for it. In any event, it appears that Watson’s sequence took 2 DVDs rather than just one! There’s a write-up at Nature News as well.
Additionally, the article states Dr. Craig Venter completed his own genome at the Venter Institute in Rockville, Md., and deposited in GenBank last week. There’s no way that the timing was coincidental; he obviously published his genome last week in order to beat Watson to the punch. According to a recent Nature News article (subscription only, here), an analysis of Venter’s genome will be described in a paper in the journal PLoS Biology, and he’s also writing a book, A Life Decoded: My Genome, My Life about his personal genome. The good news is that PLoS Biology is a free access journal, so the vast majority of the population who aren’t in academia can actually read and enjoy this article when it comes out! (In case you can’t tell, I’m a huge proponent of free and open publishing of data, especially that data funded with my tax dollars!!!).

Genetic Genealogy and the Amish

2008-03-11T12:24:00.000-07:00

I am a genetic genealogist because I thought it would be a fun and interesting thing to do. Some people, however, are genetic genealogists because it is a matter of life and death.

The Amish/Mennonites and Genetic Disorders
The Amish migrated from Europe (Germany/Switzerland) to the United States in the 1700s. One such group, the Old Order Amish of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, began with 200 Swiss immigrants. Today, there are roughly 200,000 Old Order Amish. Because of the difficult lifestyle, the lack of evangelism, and the language barrier, there is essentially no conversion to the Amish religion. In addition, marriage outside the community is forbidden. As a result, the community has remained closed for over 10 generations and is still using the same 200 genomes of their founders! This is known as “founder effect,” which means that a population is started by just a small number of individuals and as a result that new population will be different (both genetically and phenotypically) from the parent population, potentially with low genetic variation.
If I were to sequence the genomes of 200 individuals that I had somehow randomly selected, I would undoubtedly uncover a number of undesirable mutations hidden in their genes. Most of these mutations would not cause any detectable phenotype because these individuals would still have a healthy copy of the mutated gene (for the DNA newbies, we all carry 2 sets of 22 chromosomes plus 2 sex chromosomes, meaning that we have two copies of most genes).
Within the Amish populations, the mutated gene perpetuates and flourishes because it is never diluted into the general public. This means that it becomes increasingly likely that two individuals, both carrying a copy of the mutated gene, will marry and produce offspring. These children then have a random chance of inheriting two mutated copies of the gene.
Crigler-Najjar Syndrome
A recent article in USA Today, “Blue glow signifies life in peril in Pennsylvania Dutch country” analyzes the effect of one of the genetic diseases threatening the Amish. Crigler-Najjar syndrome is extremely rare, with only about 110 known cases in the entire world. Almost 20% of those cases are among the Amish and Mennonite in Pennsylvania.
People with Crigler-Najjar syndrome are unable to break down bilirubin, a natural waste product from old blood cells, and it builds to a toxic level in their blood. Untreated, the condition leads to brain damage and death. The afflicted, with yellowed eyes and golden skin as a result of their condition, are forced to spend 10 to 12 hours a day in bed underneath bright blue lights to… These beds cost about $1,000, and fans must be used to keep the children cool under the intensity of the lights. Although there is no cure, a liver transplant is one option.
The Clinic for Special Children
In 1990 a clinic opened in Straburg that specialized in children with rare diseases. The Clinic for Special Children was founded by Dr. Holmes Morton, who once worked with Dr. John Crigler, the physician who first described Crigler-Najjar syndrome in 1952 with Dr. Victor Najjar. The building, located on a site that was once an Amish field, was erected by 70 local men in the traditional barn-raising manner.
According to Wikipedia:
The clinic treats about 600 children for 80 different genetic disorders or syndromes such as glutaric aciduria (GA1), maple syrup urine disease (MSUD), Crigler-Najjar syndrome (CNS), and medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCADD). Not all the children are Amish; about 15% of the caseload come elsewhere, including Africa and Asia. About 75% of the children are treatable—and a third of those are highly treatable, many through techniques developed at the center
There’s a great brochure available that provides an in-depth description of the Clinic. In 2006, Dr. Morton was awarded a MacArthur Foundation “genius grant” for his work. A well-deserved honor, if you ask me. Here is a list of some of the publications associated with the Clinic for Special Children. Here are some other articles about the Clinic, including the Genome News Network, the New York Times, Scienceline, Affymetrix, and here. For more information about the Amish/Mennonites and genetic disorders, see this brief review by Laura Weeks (pdf!).

Interestingly, there is a Swiss Anabaptist DNA Project at FTDNA, but unsurprisingly there are very few samples so far. Another interesting source of information about Amish/Mennonite genetic genealogy is the Yoder Family Website, which contains links to DNA testing by members of the Yoder Family.
Hsien at EyeonDNA wrote about this topic at Genetics and Health, and if you read the article, you’ll see that even her “doctorate genealogy” has a link back to Amish studies.

Genetic Genealogy and Non-Paternal Events

2008-03-11T12:23:00.000-07:00

There is a certain occurrence in genetic genealogy called a Non-Paternal or Non Paternity Event. This is a break in the ancestry of a person’s Y chromosome and surname. A person named “Smith,” for instance, might have a Y chromosome that is clearly “Johnson.”
A non paternal event can occur when an adopted male takes the surname of his adoptive family, or a male child takes his step-father’s surname, or a male child takes his mother’s surname (undoubtedly there are other circumstances as well).
When a break in the Y chromosome is suspected or confirmed, it is possible that the break might have occurred 1,000 years ago, 100 years ago, or with the testee’s birth.
An article in The Atlantic titled “Who’s Your Daddy” addresses the ‘unintended consequences of genetic screening for disease.’ Or, in some cases, the unintended consequences of testing for genetic genealogy. The author, Steve Olson, recently underwent genetic genealogy testing:
“A scientific officer at a genetic testing company knew that I was interested in genealogy, and he had offered to run my DNA through a sequencer. A few weeks earlier, I’d swished mouthwash inside my cheeks, sealed the mouthwash in a tube, and mailed the tube to the company.”
The results of Mr. Olson’s (when I say that name out loud, all I can think of is ‘Little House on the Prairie’!) test revealed that his DNA was what he predicted it would be – of Scandinavian descent.
However, as Mr. Olson points out, this doesn’t always happen. The article cites Bennett Greenspan, of Family Tree DNA, as stating that “any project that has more than 20 or 30 people in it is likely to have an oops in it.” This aligns well with the traditional belief that anywhere from 5 to 15% of men are not the actual biological fathers of their children. Following this out 10 generations, there is a 40% chance of a non-paternal event!
Along the same lines, a recent article was published on the Wall Street Journals ‘informedreader’ blog titled “As DNA Tests Spread, So Do Nasty Paternity Surprises.” The article cited Steve Olson’s piece in The Atlantic.
I must admit, I have a deep understanding of this issue and the effect it can have on tested individuals. I have a solid paper trail to Germany back to the 1750’s, but when I received the results of my test, I was shocked to find that my DNA belonged to a small and unique subclade of R1b1c that was only found in England! All of my closest matches also originated in the British Isles.
My first thought was a non-paternal event. I even asked my Mom whether my dad was actually my dad (I was 99.9% joking, of course)! I was so proud of my German heritage, and here I was faced with the possibility that I wasn’t German at all.
However, after a few months, new results showed that other people belonging to the unique subclade of R1b1c also originated in the same area of Germany that my ancestors came from. Thus, rather than worrying about a potential non-paternal event, I was the first person identified with this subclade to be from Germany.
Thanks to Hsien at EyeonDNA for her help!

Ethical and Legal Issues Surrounding Large-Scale Genomic Databases

2008-03-11T12:22:00.000-07:00

I recently came across a review article by Henry T. Greely, a Professor of Law, Professor (by courtesy) of Genetics, and Director of the Center for Law and Bioethics at Stanford. The article is entitled “The Uneasy Ethical and Legal Underpinnings of Large-Scale Genomic Biobanks (pdf)” and was recently published in the Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics.
According to Mr. Greely, the identity of participants in large-scale genomic biobanks cannot effectively protected. A biobank is defined as a database of genotypic and phenotypic data. Using genetic information, physical information, or a combination of the two, people can identify an individual in such a large database:
“Someone really interested could get a DNA sample from me - from a licked stamp, a drinking glass, or some tissue - and have it genotyped for a few hundred dollars, but few will have to go to the genomic data; the phenotypic and demographic data will often be sufficient.”
“Eliminating name, mailing address, and social security number does not eliminate identifiers; it just eliminates the easiest identifiers, making the search somewhat more difficult and expensive.”
Unfortunately, it is impossible to remove all the data one could use to identify biobank participants. As Mr. Greely opines, “[t]he more the data is removed or obscured, the more scientific value is lost; the more data is kept, the less real the anonymity.”
So what is the answer? First, consent forms must reveal the fact that while biobanks will attempt to provide anonymity, they simply will not be able to guarantee it. They must also reveal that they cannot inform subjects of all the risks and benefits because many future research topics haven’t even been suggested as of yet. Second, biobanks must prevent participants from being upset by unexpected uses of their materials, either through a thorough consent form, or through general communication with research subjects (such as a mailing list or online community). Third, researchers have a moral (and perhaps legal) duty to inform participants of potentially harmful information uncovered by research. This raises a whole host of questions, including how significant the correlation between a gene and a disease must be to require a participant’s knowledge, how long the biobank should monitor the participant’s genetic information, and whether the biobank should be responsible for genetic counseling.
Mr. Greely raises a number of interesting questions that will have to be answered by governments and companies around the world as the need for biobanks increases and the relative ease of biobank creation decreases.

The Early Stages of the Genetic Genealogy Revolution

2008-03-11T12:21:00.000-07:00

It’s always been my belief that personal genetics (inexpensive whole-genome analysis) will bring about some exciting changes in the field of genetic genealogy. One of the biggest areas of change will undoubtedly be in the area of autosomal genetic testing. (Remember that autosomal testing examines nuclear DNA, which is DNA other than mtDNA, Y-DNA, or X chromsomes).
A new study takes one of the first steps in the genetic genealogy revolution by examining SNP variations in four self-identified American populations – European, Latino/Hispanic, Asian, and African American (see reference below). “These population labels were used, despite the controversy surrounding the correspondence between notions of race and population structure inferred from explicit genetic data, because they are the labels used by NIH, FDA, and many, if not most, biomedical researchers.” The researchers sequenced the exons and flanking regions of 3,873 genes from 76 unrelated individuals.
Results:
SNPs common in one population were frequently not common in other populations. “Moreover, SNPs that were common in two or more populations often differed significantly in frequency from one another, particularly in comparisons of African Americans versus other U.S. populations. These findings indicate that even if the bulk of alleles underlying complex health-related traits are common SNPs, geographic ancestry might well be an important predictor of whether a person carries a risk allele. “
“A frequent claim about human population structure is that most common variation is shared among all populations. This, of course, depends on how population boundaries are defined, but often cited to support such comments are the comparisons of SNP frequencies in pairs of populations in the HapMap data and the Perlegen data. Analyses of these data indicated that common SNPs were frequently both shared and common among populations of predominately African, Asian, and European ancestry. However, population genetic analysis was not the intended goal of either the HapMap or the Perlegen projects, and common, shared SNPs were over sampled by the ascertainment strategies used for each project.”
The structure of common SNP variation differed substantially in African Americans compared with all other U.S. populations studied. “The largest absolute number of SNPs, common SNPs, and private SNPs were found in African Americans. African Americans exhibited the highest proportion of rare SNPs (64%), the lowest proportion of common SNPs (36%), and nearly half of all SNPs (44%) in African Americans were private.”
Although I still think it is too early for useful autosomal testing, this type of data suggests that there is a bright future for geographic ancestry.
Reference: The Structure of Common Genetic Variation in U.S. Populations. Stephen L. Guthery, Benjamin A. Salisbury, Manish S. Pungliya, J. Claiborne Stephens, and Michael Bamshad. The American Society of Human Genetics (Link(pdf, requires subscription)).
HT: Dienekes’ Anthropology Blog

J. Craig Venter and Personal Genetics

2008-03-11T12:17:00.000-07:00

Wow, what a day for personal genetics. Yesterday, J. Craig Venter’s diploid genome was released (I’m not sure where the sequence is, but the paper is available at PLoS Biology, a OPEN ACCESS journal!).
I know that many people have their gripe about Venter, but seeing a story about personal genetics on the front page of CNN is important. It educates people and helps alleviate fears about genomic sequencing. I think it’s a great opportunity for the field. Here’s a few quotes from the CNN story:
“Venter has just published almost all 6 billion letters, or 96 percent, of his own personal genetic code in the journal PLoS Biology. From diseases to personality traits, it’s the most comprehensive human genome to date. Venter’s gene map provides a new understanding of his genetic destiny, according to the DNA inherited from both his father and his mother.
Venter says it’s just the beginning of a new era of personal genomics. “For the first time, we can answer almost any question of what’s genetic, what’s the environment. Our genes can tell us probabilities of what might happen and give us a chance to do something about it.”
There are also some quotes from George Church, leader of the Personal Genome Project:
“Dr. George Church, a professor of genetics at Harvard Medical School, is working on a DNA test that would identify for the consumer 1 percent of his or her DNA at a cost of $1,000. He says that someday soon, people may be checking their DNA maps as they do their stock portfolios — constantly adjusting to everyday developments and new gene discoveries.
“You’ll have all that information sitting at your desk and as the information flows in you’ll say, ‘I only want to know things of certain type. I don’t want to know about Alzheimer’s, or I don’t want to know about heart disease, or I do, or I want to know about everything, as soon as it comes in,” says Church.
It’s a habit Venter already follows. As more genes are discovered, he says, he constantly checks his own genome.”
For all the genetic genealogists out there, our habit will undoubtedly be comparing our genomes in order to find or identify potential relatives. Sure, curing disease and improving health is important, but genealogy is FUN!
The DNA Network has provided LOTS of coverage of the diploid genome release, so check out the following:
EyeonDNA, here and here.
Bitesizebio
SNPedia
Discovering Biology in a Digital World
evolgen
Genomicron
Scienceroll
The Genealogue (not a member of the DNA Network).
Whew, that should keep you busy for a while!!

Genetic Genealogy In the News

2008-03-11T12:16:00.000-07:00

There is so much information about genetic genealogy in the news right now that I am having a hard time keeping up. That, of course, is good news. So here is a round-up of some of the best from the web:
“Seeking Columbus’s Origins, With a Swab” is an article in today’s New York Times (HT: Liz). Scientists and genetic genealogists hope to use Y-DNA to compare DNA that might be Columbus’s to modern-day people with a related surname.
“Genetic Genealogy Mildly Hot” is a post by Hsien at Eye On DNA that explains why “family tree dna” was one of the top 100 searches at Google Trends yesterday. Got a guess?
In “60 Minutes on DNA: Deja Vu All Over Again“, Megan Smolenyak looks at Sunday’s 60 Minutes segment about genetic genealogy. It’s a brilliant post, especially with the following sentence:
“Since I’ve been watching this same formula repeat itself since 2001, I’ve developed a pet peeve about the built-in, patronizing assumption that genealogists are too dense to understand the fundamentals of what DNA can and can’t do — rather than the reality that we’re pioneers delighted with the prospect of learning what had previously been unknowable and well aware of the limitations.”
We’re pioneers, people! If there is anyone being tested who doesn’t understand the limitations of genetic genealogy, then they’re not reading The Genetic Genealogist, or Megan’s Roots World.
There’s some new informatio n about 23andMe’s latest round of venture capital funding.
“Genomics: The Personal Side of Genomics” is a round-up by Nature of some of the latest innovations in DNA sequencing. A nice discussion of some aspects of The Personal Genome Project (HT: Brian).
“The DNA Cracker: Closing the Book on Jack” is an article about using DNA databases to find relatives and identify potential suspects for criminal investigations. The article is also largely about Bryan Sykes, the founder of Oxford Ancestors (HT: Hsien).
And finally, the Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation (SMGF) has announced that its DNA database will expand by at least 30,000 samples this year, due to expansive collection projects in a number of regions around the world.

10 DNA Testing Myths Busted

2008-03-11T12:13:00.001-07:00

1. Genetic genealogy is only for hardcore genealogists.
Wrong! If you’ve ever wondered about the origins of your DNA, or about your direct paternal or maternal ancestral line, then genetic genealogy might be an interesting way to learn more. Although DNA testing of a single line, such as through an mtDNA test, will only examine one ancestor out of 1024 potential ancestors at 10 generations ago, this is a 100% improvement over 0 ancestors out of 1024. If you add your father’s Y-DNA, this is a 200% improvement. Now add your mother’s mtDNA, and so on. However, with this in mind, please note the next myth:
2. I’m going to send in my DNA sample and get back my entire family tree.
Sorry. DNA alone cannot tell a person who their great-grandmother was, or what Italian village their great-great grandfather came from. Genetic genealogy can be an informative and exciting addition to traditional research, and can sometimes be used to answer specific genealogical mysteries.
3. I would like to try genetic genealogy, but I’m terrified of needles.
Good news! Genetic genealogy firms don’t use blood samples to collect cells for DNA testing. Instead, these companies send swabs or other means to gently obtain cells from the cheek and saliva.
4. I would like to test my ancestor’s DNA, but they died years ago.
You don’t always need your ancestor’s DNA to get useful information from a genetic genealogy test. If you are male, you contain the Y-chromosome (Y-DNA) that was given to you by your father, who received it from his father, and so on. Both males and females have mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which was passed on to them by their mother, who received it from her mother, and so on. Everyone of us contains DNA (Y-DNA and/or mtDNA) from our ancestors that can be studied by genetic genealogy.
5. I want to test my mother’s father’s Y-DNA, but since he didn’t pass on his Y-chromosome to my mother, I’m out of luck.
Wrong! There is a very good chance that there is another source of that same Y-DNA. For instance, does your mother have a brother (your uncle) who inherited the Y-DNA from his father? Or does your mother’s father have a brother (your great-uncle) who would be willing to submit DNA for the test? Sometimes there might not be an obvious source of “lost” Y-DNA, or no one in the family is willing to take a DNA test. The secret to solving this problem is to do what every good genealogist does – use traditional genealogical research (paper records, census information, etc) to “trace the DNA”. Follow the line back while tracing descendants in order to find someone who is interested in learning more about their Y-DNA. This applies to finding a source of mtDNA as well.
6. Only men can submit DNA for genetic genealogy tests, since women do not have the Y-chromosome.
Wrong! Most genetic genealogy testing companies also offer mtDNA testing. Both men and women have mtDNA in their cells and can submit that DNA for testing. In addition, women can test their father’s, brother’s, or some other male relative’s Y-DNA to learn more about their paternal ancestral line, even though they did not inherit the Y-chromosome.
7. My genetic genealogy test will also reveal my propensity for diseases associated with the Y-chromosome and mtDNA.
Wrong, thank goodness. Most of the information obtained by genetic genealogy tests has no known medical relevancy, and these firms are not actively looking for medical information. It is important to note, however, that some medical information (such as infertility detected by DYS464 testing or other diseases detectable by a full mtDNA sequence) might inadvertently be revealed by a genetic genealogy test.
8. I don’t like the thought of a company having my DNA on file or my losing control over my DNA sample.
This is, of course, an understandable concern. However, most testing firms give a client two options: the DNA is either immediately destroyed once the tests are run, or it is securely stored for future testing. If the DNA is stored, the firm will typically destroy the DNA upon request. If the long-term storage of DNA is a concern, be sure to research the company’s policy before sending in a sample.
9. If my test reveals Native American ancestry, I plan to join a particular Native American affiliation group.
Although genetic genealogy can potentially reveal Native American ancestry (for instance, my mtDNA belongs to the Native American haplogroup A2), it is incredibly unlikely that this information will be sufficient to positively identify the specific source of the lineage (such as a tribe) or allow membership in a particular Native American affiliation.
10. My DNA is so boring that genetic genealogy would be a waste of time and money.
Very wrong! A person’s DNA is a very special possession – although everyone has DNA, everyone’s DNA is different (okay, except identical twins – if your identical twin has been tested, you should think twice about buying the same test!). As humans settled the world, Y-DNA and mtDNA spread and mixed randomly. As a result, it is impossible to guess with 100% assurance that a person’s Y-DNA or mtDNA belongs to a particular haplogroup (a related family of DNA sequences) without DNA testing.
BONUS MYTH: My genetic genealogy test says that my mtDNA belongs to Haplogroup A2. Juanita the Ice Maiden, a frozen mummy discovered in the Andes Mountains in Peru also has Haplogroup A2 mtDNA. Therefore, she must be my ancestor!

Links From The Genetic Genealogist

2008-03-11T12:12:00.001-07:00

In order to clean out posts I’ve been saving in Google Reader (does anyone else keep posts in Reader until you’ve blogged about them?), I decided to have a potpourri day. The following are links to interesting articles around the blogosphere. And Happy Halloween!
Pedro at Public Rambling has The Fortune Cookie Genome, a ’science fiction’ post about picking up the results of his whole genome scan from his genetic advisor. Of course, it’s only science ‘fiction’ until it’s science ‘reality’!
The Women’s Bioethic Project has an article about DNA Testing Without Consent, which asks whether there should be a ‘reverse’ statute of limitations for testing DNA from famous dead people. The article was written in response to a recent story in Parade. I talked about this briefly back in August (see “DNA From the Dead“), and I’m working on a post about “Discarded DNA and the Constitution”, so stick around. HT: Eye on DNA.
Tim at Genealogy Reviews Online continues his review of DNA Ancestry with DNA Ancestry Review Part 2. In this installment, Tim describes the DNA collection process.
At The Tree of Life, Jonathan Eisen presents the Overselling Genomics award to Newsweek as a result of their “10 Hottest Nerds” story. Personally, I think any story that brings science to the masses in an connectable way is beneficial, but I agree that the lack of women on the list was a huge oversight.
At genomeboy.com, Misha Angrist dissects the recent Portfolio piece about personal genomics companies such as 23andMe and Navigenics. He also highlights that familiar $12.5 billion “potential market” quote. I wish I knew who and how that number has come from.
And finally, Alan Boyle at Cosmic Log writes about The Secrets in Your Genome, which is about the International HapMap Consortium’s latest release:

Dna Source

2008-03-11T11:57:00.000-07:00

By the early 1970s, Sanger was interested in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA sequence studies had not developed because of the immense size of DNA molecules and the lack of suitable enzymes to cleave DNA into smaller pieces. Building on the enzyme copying approach used by the Swiss chemist Charles Weissmann in his studies on bacteriophage RNA, Sanger began using the enzyme DNA polymerase to make new strands of DNA from single-strand templates, introducing radioactive nucleotides into the new DNA. DNA polymerase requires a primer that can bind to a known region of the template strand. Early success was limited by the lack of suitable primers. Sanger and British colleague Alan R. Coulson developed the “plus and minus” method for rapid DNA sequencing. It represented a radical departure from earlier methods in that it did not utilize partial hydrolysis. Instead, it generated a series of DNA molecules of varying lengths that could be separated by using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. For both plus and minus systems, DNA was synthesized from templates to generate random sets of DNA molecules from very short to very long. When both plus and minus sets were separated on the same gel, the sequence could be read from either system, one confirming the other. In 1977 Sanger's group used this system to deduce most of the DNA sequence of bacteriophage FX174, the first complete genome to be sequenced.

DNA Analysis and Intra-Agency Databases

2008-03-11T11:36:00.002-07:00

In the 1990’s DNA testing started to become popular particularly in the area of Law Enforcement. Old pieces of evidence to include hair, blood and semen which were once not able to provide evidence now were able to be processed and evidence and a DNA profile could be extracted from the materials. Thanks to DNA many unsolved cased were able to be solved and many suspects of crimes were finally able to be charged. DNA has also helped the innocent from wrongful incarceration. DNA evidence is becoming mandatory in states in terms of death row inmates and proving that the right person is behind bars. In 2000, Illinois Governor George Ryan announced his plan to suspend all of the states executions indefinitely. Governor Ryan’s made this landmark statement after DNA testing showed that 13 Illinois death-row prisoners could not have committed the capital crimes of which they were convicted. DNA is not just putting people in prison; it is also ensuring that those in prison should be there. DNA is being used to confirm the conviction and ensure that the right person is serving time for the crime. In what is bring described as the first effort of it’s kind San Diego prosecutors are reviewing hundreds of old cases to see if longtime prison inmates can be cleared by DNA evidence. If evidence is found, the San Diego County District Attorney’s office will have it tested for free if an inmate agrees. Not only does this get innoscent people out of prison it also helps to build out the national DNA database. Part of the DNA testing of inmates is that the inmate’s DNA will end up in a national database where it may be used to solve other cases which have gone unsolved. San Diego Country Prosecutors are looking at a total of 560 criminal cases. Since DNA has been introduced thousands of suspects and prison inmates have been cleared and released as a result of DNA evidence showing they could not have been responsible for the crime. A popular case that outlined this is the Larry Youngblood case. Larry Youngblood was convicted in 1985 of child molestation, sexual assault, and kidnapping. He was sentenced to ten years and six months in prison. In October 1983, a ten year old boy was abducted from a carnival in Pima County, Arizona, and molested and sodomized repeatedly for over an hour by a middle aged man. The victim was taken to a hospital, where the staff collected semen samples from his rectum as well as the clothing he was wearing at the time of the assault. Based on the boy's description of the assailant as a man with one disfigured eye, Youngblood was charged with the crime. He maintained his innocence at trial, but the jury convicted him, based largely on the eyewitness identification of the victim. No serological tests were conducted before trial, as the police improperly stored the evidence and it had degraded. Expert witnesses at trial stated that, had the evidence been stored correctly, test results might have demonstrated conclusively Youngblood's innocence. Larry Youngblood appealed his conviction, claiming the destruction of potentially exculpatory evidence violated his due process rights, and the Arizona Court of Appeals set aside his conviction. He was released from prison, three years into his sentence, but in 1988, the Supreme Court reversed the lower court's ruling, and his conviction was reinstated (Arizona v. Youngblood, 488 U.S. 51). Youngblood remained free as the case made its way through the Arizona appellate court system a second time, but returned to prison in 1993, when the Arizona Supreme Court reinstated his conviction. In 1998, Youngblood was released on parole, but was sent back to prison in 1999 for failing to register his new address, as required by Arizona sex offender laws. In 2000, upon request from his attorneys, the police department tested the degraded evidence using new, sophisticated DNA technology. Those results exonerated Youngblood, and he was released from prison in August 2000. The district attorney's office dismissed the charges against Larry Youngblood that year. In 1990, the FBI established its database containing genetic profiles from unsolved crimes and from convicted offenders. In October 1998, the FBI's National DNA Index System (NDIS) became operational. The database is the (CODIS) Combined DNA Index System, a computerized forensic database of DNA “profiles” of offenders convicted of serious crimes (such as rape, other sexual assaults, murder, and certain crimes against children), as well as DNA profiles from unknown offenders. CODIS generates investigative leads in crimes where biological evidence is recovered from the crime scene using two indexes: the forensic and offender indexes. By 1998, every state had enacted legislation establishing a CODIS database and requiring that DNA from offenders convicted of certain serious crimes be entered into the system. Today, the CODIS database contains about 400,000 DNA profiles, and the number is growing. CODIS is implemented as a circulated database with three tiers - local, state, and national. NDIS is the highest level in the CODIS hierarchy, and enables the laboratories participating in the CODIS Program to exchange and compare DNA profiles on a national level. All DNA profiles originate at the local level (LDIS), then flow to the state (SDIS) and national levels. SDIS allows laboratories within states to exchange DNA profiles. The tiered approach allows state and local agencies to operate their databases according to their specific legislative or legal requirements. It is being enhanced daily through the work of federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies who take DNA samples from biological evidence gathered at crime scenes and from offenders themselves. The computerized CODIS system can rapidly identify a perpetrator when it finds a match between an evidence sample and a stored profile. As of 2003, the database had profiled approxminaly 66,000 unsolved cases and more than 1.5 million convicted offenders. Matches made among profiles in the Forensic Index can link crime scenes together; and even identifying serial offenders. Based on a match, police in multiple jurisdictions can coordinate their respective investigations, and share the leads they developed independently. Matches made between the Forensic and Offender indexes provide investigators with the identity of the perpetrator(s). After CODIS identifies a potential match, qualified DNA analysts in the laboratories contact each other to validate or refute the match. Everyone benefits from having a national DNA database and DNA information has helped many victims, families and people who were either the victim of a crime or victimized by the criminal justice system and wrongfully convicted. The DNA database provides a very large resource which provides a conclusive way to show whether or not someone had anything to do with a crime. The database has also closed thousands of cases which would have otherwise gone unsolved indefinitely.

DNA Testing - Are You Raising Someone Else's Child?

2008-03-11T11:36:00.001-07:00

Paternity Testing – Are you raising someone else’s child?
Back in the 1700s, the best way to determine paternity was by a good hard look at the child, followed by a good hard look at the father. Enough coincidences and maybe a relationship could be proposed. A hundred years later, eye colour was discovered to be a paternity identifier. This theory has had its flaws exposed because of recent DNA advances. We now know that eye colour is determined by at least six alleles, or genetic markers. Paternity testing has become a lot easier and affordable over the past few years due to advances in DNA science. Although an estimated 200,000 DNA tests are conducted each year by states needing to sort child-support and welfare issues, few people are willing to conduct their own at-home paternity test because they don’t realize the simplicity and convenience of an at-home paternity test.
How does a home DNA test work?
Paternity testing requires a painless sample from both the child and possible father. Even without a sample from the mother, DNA paternity test results are up to 99.9999% accurate–that’s one-in-a-million odds your results are incorrect. Most companies provide a free home kit for you to provide the samples and require you to send the kit back to the laboratory with the accompanying fee.
Because many companies are aware of the discomfort of drawing blood from a child in order to get a sample, buccal (mouth) swabs are being accepted as an alternative. By gently massaging the inside of the child’s mouth, cheek cells are collected. These cells are then sent to the lab for testing. Labs analyze up to sixteen genetic markers of the child and match them against the markers of the alleged father. Because each of us receives half our genetic markers from each parent, the results of DNA paternity testing are still accurate without the DNA information of the mother. Most labs will have results in 10 days and charge about $290 for a basic paternity verification test.
What else can a DNA test do?
DNA kits can also be used to analyze siblingship, establish cousin or grandparent relationships, determine twin zygosity (i.e. whether twins are fraternal or identical), identify ancestral origin, verify Native American decent, assure parents they left the hospital with the right baby, and most important, provide legal evidence – be prepared to pay a bit more for legal tests. Legal tests can be used to settle adoption issues, settle child-support disputes, and provide information for immigration files.
How to choose a DNA laboratory
Accreditation is a vital part of choosing a laboratory. Accredited labs have an annual audit and inspection, undergo internal and external reviews, and have their equipment calibrated for accuracy. Look for an ISO and/or AABB certification. Accredited labs will have a good reputation and near 100% track record for court cases.
Look for hidden fees. Some companies will charge you for the kit and then charge you again for the results. Also, double check when you order your kit that you’re only buying the results you need.
Ask about privacy. Make sure that your identity and intentions are kept secure.
Enjoy piece of mind
Be confident that the questions you have can be answered. DNA testing is safe and stress-free. Find a free kit and an information packet and you’re on your way to getting the piece of mind that you deserve.

Our Dreams Are Our DNA

2008-03-11T11:35:00.001-07:00

Take biology for instance. I never took a biology course in my life. I really have no idea how my body works, and yet I remain in good health. But when I visit the doctor, it’s the same as visiting an auto mechanic or a computer technician. They ask a few questions, and then tell me it sounds like a problem with the gobbly-gook. I nod my head, as if I know what they’re talking about, and then leave more confused then ever.
So, you could imagine my horror when my son comes up to me and says, “Daddy, what’s DNA?” I had no clue. The only people that really care about it are the lawyers, the researchers and the people on CSI. I figured it had to stand for something, and I knew two things about it from watching television: it’s all over our body, and it’s unique for every body.
So, I gave him my “Daddy knows best” look and said, “Eric, it’s an abbreviation. It stands for…Dreams Needing Attention.” His face lit up and he went to the phone to tell all his friends about his new found knowledge. Then my wife came up, and said, “Hold on Eric. I decided to Ask Jeeves, and he said DNA stands for Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid.” Silly Jeeves. So, I told my son that was the Latin equivalent for Dreams Needing Attention.
But if you think about it, my answer made perfect sense. Our dreams are our DNA. DNA is all over our body, and it makes us unique. So do our dreams!
My feet have dreams to run with Olympic speed. My hands have dreams to write another best-seller…or two. My eyes have dreams of seeing a summer without any road construction! And our hearts have dreams. Why else would the Internet become the world’s largest dating service?
Sure, some of us share similar dreams. Other people also want to write a few best-sellers. But, when we look at the big set of our career dreams, our relationship dreams, our fun dreams and our other dreams, we are each unique in that large set of dreams.
So, DNA is all over our body, and it makes us unique. The thing is that when we’re young, we have huge dreams. We want to cook like Martha Stewart, even if we don’t know how to turn on the oven. The gap between our reality and our dreams is huge. As we grow older, we should be closing the gap to make these huge dreams come true. But instead, we pay attention to the dreams that are much closer to reality.
Our big dreams haven’t gone away, we’re just not paying attention to them. They’re still in our feet, our hands, our eyes and our hearts.
Adults don’t seem to think dreams come true, but they do. Dreams come true everyday. When you get up in the morning, you dream about getting to work on time. (For some this is a bigger dream than for others) At the beginning of the year, your sales manager will present a sales dream for the year. (sure, he might call it a target, or a goal, or an objective) Then the sales team works to make that sales dream a reality.
On a smaller scale, each day, you go about spending your time and money trying to make your dreams come true. The dreams you focus on will create your reality. If you’re focusing on sales of one mil.lion per year, you’ll probably get different results than if you’re focusing on sales of ten mil.lion per year.
To change your reality, change the dreams that you’re paying attention to.
If you pay attention to the dream of making it through the day, then that will be your reality. If you pay attention to the dream of becoming the person your DNA wants you to be, then your reality will go in a whole new direction.
We’re not put on this planet to settle. We’re put here to shine.
Your reality in the upcoming weeks, months and years will depend on the dreams you pay attention to today. Ask yourself what reality you want for yourself, then pay attention to the dreams that will get you there!

DNA Genealogy

2008-03-11T11:34:00.000-07:00

The next time you are watching your favorite CSI TV show or a particular movie and stumble into the fascinating world of DNA, you might be surprised to know that our DNA can do more than identify a suspect or victim at a crime scene. In fact, DNA is now being used to identify ancestors in the new and exciting field of DNA Genealogy.
DNA Genealogy takes traditional genealogy and applies genetics to it. DNA Genealogy involves the use of genealogical DNA testing to determine the level of genetic relationship between two individuals (Genealogical 2005). DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, is used in the process because of its unique nature and the fact that it is passed down from one generation to the next. In the passing, some parts of the DNA remain almost completely unchanged, while other parts change dramatically. This property allows for the identification of certain consistencies between generations and provides the ability to identify genetic relationships.
There are two types of DNA tests available for testing DNA Genealogy: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome DNA tests.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is found in the cytoplasm of the cell instead of in the nucleus as is Y-chromosome (Tracing 2003). mtDNA is passed by a mother to both her male and female children without any additions or mixing from the father. Therefore, your mtDNA is the same as your mother’s mtDNA. mtDNA is different in nature compared to Y-DNA. It changes slowly making it more difficult to determine close relationships and easier to determine relatedness. If two people have the same mtDNA, there is a very good chance that they also share a common maternal ancestor. Unfortunately, it is difficult to determine if that common maternal ancestor was recent or instead lived hundreds of years ago.
Y-chromosome tests have been used more and more recently to determine DNA Genealogy. The Y-DNA tests are only available for males, because the Y-chromosome is only passed down along the paternal line from father to son. There are tiny chemical markers on the Y-chromosome that create a unique pattern. This pattern of markers is what is called a haplotype. A haplotype is used to determine one male lineage from another. This type of testing is often used to determine if two individuals who have the same surname share a common ancestor.
One of the early beginnings of DNA Genealogy was a study published by Bryan Sykes in 2000 (Sykes and Irven 2000) that used DNA Genealogy (Y-chromosome markers) along with surname studies to determine relatedness. The study compared 48 men with the same surname of Sykes from the regions of England and analyzed four Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) on their Y-chromosome: DYS19, DYS390, DYS391, and DYS393. The study found that of the 48 men tested, 21 had the same core haplotype and many others were only one mutational step away from the core haplotype. Skypes interpreted these results to reveal a common origin from an ancestor who lived some 700 years ago (Butler 2005).
Since its early beginnings, DNA Genealogy has come a long way and has grown rapidly. DNA Genealogy continues to increase in popularity as the price of tests becomes much more affordable and the number of markers and clarity of the tests become greater. Additionally, DNA collection techniques make it a very simple and pain-free process.
Sources
Butler J. (2005) Forensic DNA Typing; Biology, Technology, and Genetics of STR Markers, 74, 231-232.
Genealogical DNA test. (2005, December 7). Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21:52, December 8, 2005 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genealogical_DNA_test&oldid=30489865.
Sykes, B. and Irven, C. (2000) American Journal of Human Genetics, 66, 1417-1419.

How Does My DNA Work?

2008-03-11T11:33:00.000-07:00

The subject of DNA is very much in the headlines and news but very few have bothered to learn or understand just how this amazing molecule works and how it makes us what we are from head to toe. Haven't you ever asked yourself how you got your nose, eyes, ears, fingers, toes, and everything else? How did your DNA bring all this about? Before we answer that question we need to know just a few simple things about DNA.
DNA is the abbreviated name for the genetic code and it is exactly that - a code. It is a molecular string of chemical information.
DNA is located in the nucleus of our cells and is made up of smaller molecules called nucleic acids. These smaller molecules in DNA are arranged in a sequence, just like the letters in a sentence. The sequence of these nucleic acids tell the cells in our body how to build our nose, eyes, hands, feet, and everything else.
The material our body uses to build new cells comes from the food we eat. Food is not just for energy. Food is also the "lumber" and "bricks" the body uses to build new cells. When a cell multiplies it makes more cells of the same size. The only way to do this is by getting new material and that new material comes from food.
Think about it! When we were in our mother's womb we started off as a single cell not even weighing an ounce at conception. Eventually we developed arms, hands, legs, feet and organs such as brain, heart, lungs, liver, stomach, until we had a complete body. It's true that the single cell we once were multiplied into many more cells, but where did the material come from for that one cell to multiply into billions of more cells of equal size and eventually making a body weighing several pounds from something that didn't even weigh an ounce in the beginning. The material came from our mother's food.
When food is digested and broken down to its basic amino acids the various amino acids are then rearranged in a certain sequence to form cells that make up the various tissues and organs. What sequence these amino acids come together in is determined by the sequence of the molecules in DNA.
Remember, even after all our organs are formed the cells that make up our organs are continually dying and need to be replaced. Again, the material to make more cells to replace the ones that are dying comes from food.
Thus, when you feed your dog a T-Bone steak your dog's DNA will make sure that steak is digested and rearranged to form the various parts of your dog, but when you eat the same steak your DNA will make sure that the steak is digested and rearranged to form human parts.
The sequence in DNA differs from individual to individual and from species to species. For an analogy think of a library where all the books are in one language. In the library there are different books on different topics and subjects. All the books share the letters from the same alphabet, but the sequence in which these letters are arranged are different from book to book. The sequence of the letters makes the difference between a book on chemistry and a romance novel!
When scientists study genes they are studying segments of the DNA molecule. The goal of the human genome project was to locate where the various genes are on the DNA. Only in this way can we begin to understand how to use genetic engineering to correct various genetically caused disorders and maladies. Faulty genes arise from mutations. Mutations are accidental changes in the sequence of the genetic code caused by radiation and other environmental forces. Most biological variations, however, are not from mutations but from new combinations of already existing genes.
Because they are accidents in the genetic code, almost all mutations are harmful. Even if a good mutation does occur for every good one there would be hundreds of harmful ones with the net effect over time being harmful, if not lethal, to the species as a whole.
Evolutionists hope that with enough time and with enough mutations new genes for entirely new traits will be produced leading to the evolution of new biological kinds. There is no evidence that this can happen from accidental changes in the sequence of the genetic code, anymore than it's possible to change a romance novel into a book on chemistry by accidental changes in the sequence of the letters.
At the very best mutations can only produce new varieties of already existing genes or traits, but not new genes or new traits. For example, mutations in the gene for human hair may change that gene so that another type of human hair develops but the mutations won't change the gene so that feathers or wings develop!
No one has shown that DNA can come into existence by chance! It takes DNA to get DNA! Yes, the individual molecules that make up DNA have been shown to be able to come into existence by chance. But, it has never been shown that those individual molecules can come together into a sequence by chance to form the genetic code.
Science cannot prove the existence of God but the scientific evidence shows that DNA, life, and the universe are not here by chance. For more information on this please read my other articles and, especially, my essay "The Natural Limits of Evolution" at my website www.religionscience.com.
Sincerely, Babu G. Ranganathan (B.A. Bible/Biology)

DNA Takes Over Where Paper Leaves Off

2008-03-11T11:30:00.000-07:00

Paper documentation only goes back so far but the genealogy bug knows no bounds. If we traced our family tree back fifty generations, we would always be curious about the fifty first. Knowing that the paper trail has to end somewhere, the only real alternative we have is our DNA. Each person carries a map inside of their cells, a map that shows where your family came from on Earth. Through a series of markers, geneticists can tell the path your family has taken over time. Although the information is somewhat vague, DNA is an excellent way to prove your ethnicity. DNA testing is somewhat expensive, around $100 for a simple test, but it can pinpoint a few key items. Men can determine where their male ancestors were from through a marker passed from father to son. Men can also determine where their female ancestors came from through a marker passed from a mother to her children. However, women do not have this marker from their father. This is one of the main confusions with DNA testing for genealogy purposes. A man's markers can tell where the Jones family came from because each father and son was a Jones. Women have the disadvantage of losing their last name when they get married. Mrs. Jones' mother was a Smith and her mother was a Williams, etc. We cannot say that any of these last names came from a specific area because they keep changing through marriage. It is therefore necessary that a man take a DNA test to prove the origin of the family's last name. Genetic testing can help solidify family ties when no paper documentation exists. For example, there are lots of Lett families around the country and we did not know how they all fit together, at least not until DNA testing came around. After having one Lett male from each line tested, we could see whose DNA matched and whose did not. We were able to see migratory patterns in the family where paper did not exist. It also helped us to separate out various spellings. There used to be confusion over which families in old documents were Letts and which were Lotts, an unrelated group. Now we have a better idea of where those families lived and who were their members. We have a much lower risk now of confusing Letts and Lotts.

Secret DNA Test - 5 Steps To Know Before You Start DNA Testing

2008-03-10T15:18:00.001-07:00

Paternity test could be done much simpler when DNA samples were secretly obtained from other persons' personal belongings such as toothbrush, comb and bandages.
It sounds sneaky to obtain other persons' DNA samples by this methods but these methods are best way of getting DNA samples for DNA testing without upsetting or unnecessary provoke other persons.
How do we get the samples of DNA of other persons?
Step 1 - Look out for the toothbrush...
Discreet samples from the toothbrush or used bandaged can be sent to distinctive DNA testing centers but earlier it must be put in the large or regular envelope. Seal the envelope tightly with cellophane tape or paper glue. The best DNA test results are normally obtained from toothbrush.
Step 2: Locate suitable DNA testing center
Find one suitable DNA testing center to have the DNA sample analyzed for accurate results. Choose any DNA testing center according to your desirable locations. If you could not find any one of these centers in your area, try to look out for one via internet search.
Most of the DNA testing centers offer free DNA testing kits that available for people from all over the world. In this case, you will be charged for a small fee for postage fees. The results will be sent to you via mail, email and phone.
Make sure you read the terms and conditions of the chosen DNA testing center to clarify the agreement between the DNA testing center and their clients. It is advisable that you should have the habit of reading and understand the terms of conditions of the company's service before you make a decision.
Step 4: Start "Window Shopping"
"Window-shopping" for DNA testing centers is a must because DNA testing is indeed a competitive market and most of these DNA testing centers have already started to have promotional packages that give discounts to their first and frequent clients.
Hence, DNA testing is getting simpler and fast because of the improving cutting-edge DNA testing technology.
Step 5: Educate yourself about basics of DNA testing
You need to have some brief understanding on how DNA testing actually works. Basically, there are several methods in DNA testing in determining various kinds of relationships such as paternity test, siblings test, ancestry DNA test, and also twin zygosity test.
You will encounter some biological terms in your DNA testing report and do not hesitate to ask DNA testing consultants for questions.
When you have familiarized with all of these five steps above, start taking DNA sample secretly and send it to your preferable DNA testing center as soon as possible.

Is It Safe To Have Personal DNA Testing?

2008-03-10T15:17:00.000-07:00

Getting your own DNA make up has created a fad among health-concern societies. Basically, one of the main purpose for a person who wants to have his DNA analyzed, is just to find out whether he needs to have to take any health precautions. Highly sensitive testing has been discovered to track down the probability of disease to occur. It sounds like it is some sort of a disease prediction and seems to be true - as we called it as "Genetic Horoscope".
Most of the DNA Testing centers provide personal testing services for public but it has also raised doubts about the reliability of testing. Is it safe to have our personal DNA tested as we fear that our results might slip into wrong hands?
This is an ongoing dispute which is involves several people in and out of law enforcement. In terms of practicality of the testing service, several investors have invested millions in improving the research of testing technologies and products that could solve larger problems concerning other than health issues such as forensic science, paternity testing and ancestry search.
This might probably weighing down criticisms against personal DNA testing. In addition, price of testing will be reduced due to competition that make it more affordable and cheaper service rates for public. It better that we succumb to the privacy issues as testing requires mass submission of DNA samples into the database. Certainly, problems such as mass submission of samples could slow down the process of investigation of misdemeanors.
As all human makes mistakes - we learn from the mistakes as systematic DNA database establishment is depends on public cooperation. It is vastly depends on public involvement to produce a well-organized DNA database.
A well established DNA database can upgrade our quality of our lives as it is relying on comparison and analysis of all of our DNA sequences in pursuance of unlocking the hidden truth in our genes. Every new discoveries is a lead to a new solution - so as testing. Having a personal testing is safe although it has contrary views from various fields of people. It can be much safer if it is well regulated by prioritizing better health and ethics system.
It is not like a donation - you do not donate your own DNA. Your DNA will be eliminated once the test are run. Optionally, you can also opt for secure DNA storage. It can be destroyed upon your request. Start making an internet search on testing centers. Spend some time on their terms and policies. Please clarify about it with their consultants. Most of the times education does pay in order to have a safe DNA testing.

How to Order a Legal DNA Test

2008-03-10T15:16:00.000-07:00

Legal paternity testing offers legal proof-of-paternity/non-paternity for a variety of legal applications, including divorce and custody cases, birth certificate changes and visa applications.
If both legal and personal tests offer the same DNA evidence, what is it that makes a legal test legal?
The collector.
As an independent party to the case, the appointed DNA collector ensures that each participant is properly identified, witnessing the collection of each sample much like a notary public witnesses and collects a signature. The collector is responsible for mailing samples directly to the lab - eliminating the possibility of any tampering or contamination by participating parties.
DNA Worldwide is one of a select group of labs accredited by both the AABB and ISO 17025 standards bodies, the organizations responsible for monitoring the legal DNA testing process. The collection process and materials used are subject to strict AABB/ISO guidelines.
DNA Worldwide receives and processes the samples, notifying participants according to their requested method as soon as results become available.
As always, DNA Worldwide's Client Services representatives are available to provide assistance with this- or any other - testing process. Our goal is to make the entire procedure as smooth and painless as possible, for our clients.
The Collection Process*
DNA Worldwide provides the collector with a complete legal DNA collection kit, which includes the following forms and collection materials for each participant:
*Chain-of-custody forms *Pre-addressed air bill *Swabs/Envelopes *Instructions *Plastic bio-hazard bag
The list of all identification and documentation requirements includes government-issued photo identification (for parents/guardians - tested or not), birth certificates (for dependents), and - if applicable - proof-of-guardianship.
The collector reviews all identification and documentation, and - along with all participants - signs and dates photocopies of each. Each participant signs and dates the completed chain-of-custody form, which the collector certifies with their signature. Sample collection is completed in the collector's presence, after which test swabs are sealed in their respective envelopes, and--together with the completed documentation - are submitted to DNA Worldwide's lab for testing. Collectors are encouraged to use our Legal Test Collectors' Hotline 0845 2571217 for help with ordering and collecting a legal DNA test.

Effect Of Food On Dna

2008-03-10T15:15:00.002-07:00

Food has tantalizing effect in human history as in the start of the human evolution. Each individual has gene variation in which the protein sequences are affected and most likely, the nutrient requirements, the likeliness of disease are varied to the appropriateness of the genetic makeup in oneself. Nutrigenomics is the term used for the study of genes and nutritional requirements. It has been found that food can interact with single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNIPs) in our DNA and activate certain genes.
For example, eating shrimp can cause skin allergy while assuming broccoli that is rich in anti cancer properties can activate detoxification.
Grapefruit has naringenin, a flavonoid rich in anti-cancer properties and induce DNA repair on affected cancer cells. The activation of naringenin will stimulate the Base Excision Repair (BER) cellular mechanism in DNA replication stage. The cancer preventive agent also rich in anti oxidant properties and could lower down cholesterol level in blood by 15%.
Sodium benzoate is a common preservative that is found in processed soft drinks to add flavoring. When tested on DNA of yeast, it could inactivate the DNA in mitochondria completely and later the cell malfunctions completely. Another study tied the preservative to neuro-degenerative diseases like Parkinson's and also the aging process.
Tocotrienols, the less studied of Vitamin E, may reduce DNA damage in cancer development by 50 percent. This important finding is related to oxidative stress and quenching of oxygen species by Vitamin E.
Eating kiwifruit can be a preventive measure against cancer as it can improve the DNA repair after peroxide is induced for cell damage. In one sense, the concept of nutrigenomics is already applied in modern medicine. Consider phenylketonuria, for example.
Infants with mutations in the PAH gene, which leads to impaired metabolism of phenylalanine, are fed a low- or no-phenylalanine diet for much of their childhood and usually into their adult life. Many other genes for simple metabolic disorders are tested in standard newborn screening assessments.
Most diseases, however, are much more complex. Advancing nutrigenomics for these diseases, and for overall health, will require dedicated, focused studies in genetics and epigenetics, as well as increased understanding of how genes, proteins, and epigenetic changes interact within networks and pathways.

DNA Testing In Early Cervical Cancer Detection

2008-03-10T15:15:00.001-07:00

Pap smears has been traditionally used in cervical cancer detection that look for the the presence of human papillomavirus (HPV) in cervical cells which is the cause of most cervical cancer.
In addition to the traditional Pap smears, DNA testing for HPV from cervical cells has higher significance in detecting high-grade precancerous lesions.
An early detection able to avoid cancer from spreading to other parts of body.
It is matter of life and death if high accuracy and high sensitivity precancerous lesions detection able to be performed within a short period of time. Removal of benign tumor should be done as soon as possible.
Time is gold - The faster it detects, the faster it can save one's life.
However, DNA testing cannot be a replacement for Pap smears as it had created more false alarms that could force more woman to have further unnecessary medical workup.
Few things you need to know about HPV DNA Test:
1. It is only meant for woman over 30 years of age.
Women under 30 years of age will have asymptomatic infection with HPV. Woman after 30 and older have higher risk of high-grade precancerous lesions.
2. Highly-sensitive and specific molecular techniques for identifying HPV DNA in cervical specimens.
HPV DNA test was found to have slightly worse specificity than Pap smears due to the improving sensitivity of the test. This has created higher false positives rate than Pap testing.
3. Women over 30 to be tested every three years if they add the HPV DNA test to their regular testing regime.
If both tests (Pap and DNA Testing) are negative, screening is not repeated for three years.
Eventually, with the advancement of DNA testing of HPV, Pap smears testing can be replaced and women will have less frequent cervical cancer screenings.

DNA Testing Improves Identification Of Survivors

2008-03-10T15:13:00.002-07:00

We human beings are born to be unique. Although twins of similar features and sexes are hard to be differentiated, there is still one big difference if you look enough underneath all the layers of organs. The answer lies in the genetic markers in our DNA.
In this case, we can even reconstruct genetic profile of someone distant in your family tree or missing family member as gene inheritance happens in family like from grandparents to parents and so forth.
This identification method that is now being used for situations that, due to decomposition and the loss of medical records, have exhausted all other available identification methods.
For example, the World Trade Center 2001 destruction, Hurricane Katrina 2005 and South East Asia tsunami chaos 2004 which resulted in thousands of death which may need few days or weeks to retrieve the bodies and to be brought back to the morgue as weather, lack of humanitarian volunteers, badly affected location and also lack of technology could improve situation.
Forensic and postmortem protocols could check on features like dental, fingerprint, sex, hair color and others. In addition, with further implementation like DNA matching, it is necessary for identification of children who were lacking little antemortem dental or fingerprint data.
With standardized procedures, it would be likely for months to correctly match the corpse using genetic markers. In addition, roughly only 50 to 60% of the 3025 persons who died in 9-11 chaos were managed to be identify in 18 months.
Certain DNA markers that are shared among a deceased individual's DNA profile and several survivors' reference sample profiles indicate that a relative has been found and can now be identified. Of course the high cost of DNA testing and lack of morgue with the expertise in those destructive places may lead to slow identification.
In 2006, the DNA Shoah Project was set to achieve its goal to give the departed Holocausts victims the last respect they deserved and to create a DNA database that can serve as both a genetic family tree and a memorial to those who perished.
The hope was to match these remains with DNA samples gathered from Holocaust survivors and from descendants of the departed.
The project's second aim: to unite those orphaned by the Holocaust with a close relative who survived. With a large database of living survivors, internal matches among them could also turn up.
DNA typing has often been portrayed in the media and the courtroom as a controversial technology but in a way, it certainly acts as a helping tool in identification tool in survivors or dead bodies. People say dead bodies don't talk, but if you study deep to their bones, they tell stories untold.
Nevertheless, the basic premise of the argument is valid and has been incorporated into recommendations about how forensic DNA testing be conducted and interpreted.

DNA of Obesity

2008-03-10T15:13:00.001-07:00

In US alone, more than half population is either overweight or obese. The statistic is alarming as obesity is associated with many chronic diseases including cardiovascular disorders, diabetes and others. It's a need to identify genes that have prominent influences on obesity.
INSIG2 gene induced by insulin would inhibit the fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis. People with a sequence variation near the gene would exhibit more fat accumulation, as the normal functional gene could not complete its potential.
In three rare diseases of severe fat malabsorption, chylomicron retention disease (CMRD), Anderson disease and CMRD with Marinesco Sjogren syndrome, the Sar1b protein required for all dietary fat absorption could not work normally because of genetic mutation.
Gene variant FTO that is susceptible to type 2 diabetes can be found among over half of European population who is linked with obesity causes. If a person with two copies of FTO variant is likely to weigh 3 kilos more than a normal person, and person with only one copy there are more likely to weigh 1.2 kilos more.
The human lipin gene might be a candidate for obesity was excess levels in fat tissue or skeletal muscle will promote the condition. Deficiency in lipin levels would prevent normal development of mature fat cells.
Another mutant gene, ENPP1 which presents in 20% Caucasians and 50% of black people, will block insulin from binding in pancreas and the brain. Thus, the insulin resistance will store excess glucose production from liver as layers of fat and diminish insulin secretion that will lead to increased risk of type 2 diabetes.
GAD2, a gene found on chromosome 10 can speed up the production of a chemical transmitter in the brain, GABA, which stimulates appetite. One form of the gene appeared to protect some people against obesity, while another form increased the risk of the disorder.
About 20 genes maybe involved in causing common obesity, but genetics alone cannot fully account for a worldwide obesity trend in recent decades.

DNA In Forensic Science

2008-03-10T15:12:00.001-07:00

Since the introduction of DNA testing started to use as evidence in 1990, the criminal justice system has been improved but mistakes and human errors have downplayed the effectiveness of this DNA technology.
This DNA forensic has undeniably helped in solving tough cases and yet, public awareness of the information is only surface touching depth.
Forensic identification tests can link the DNA segments to each individuals existing.
Examples of DNA uses in the field include identification of potential suspects whose DNA maybe match leftovers at crime scenes, establishment of paternity and family relationships of victims whom could not be recognized based on their outlooks and matching organ donors with recipients in transplant programs.
The selected interesting cases of forensic identification which involved the DNA Shoah Project, identification of the 911 and South East Asia 2004 Tsunami victims.
There have been two main types of forensic DNA testing. They are often called; RFLP and PCR based testing, although these terms are not very descriptive.
Generally, RFLP testing requires larger amounts of DNA and the it must be under graded. Crime-scene evidence that is old or present in small amounts, is often unsuitable for RFLP testing.
Warm moist conditions may accelerate DNA degradation rendering it unsuitable for RFLP in a relatively short period of time. PCR-based testing often requires less DNA than RFLP testing and the DNA may be partially degraded, more so than is the case with RFLP. However, PCR still has sample size and degradation limitations that sometimes may be under-appreciated.
PCR-based tests are also extremely sensitive to contaminating DNA at the crime scene and within the test laboratory. During PCR, contaminants may be amplified up to a billion times their original concentration. Contamination can influence PCR results, particularly in the absence of proper handling techniques and proper controls for contamination.
PCR is less direct and somewhat more prone to error than RFLP. However, PCR has tended to replace RFLP in forensic testing primarily because PCR based tests are faster and more sensitive. Science cannot yet provide conclusive results on genetics and behavior. Discovering more about ourselves to the basic components can reveal much more about us.
Blood group, originality, race, allergies, genetic dominance and other elements just showed that we are fascinating creatures to exist on earth.

DNA - Overview Of The Importance and Basics

2008-03-10T15:11:00.000-07:00

Humans have something in common - DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) which is secretively hidden in our chromosomes. Since DNA is a type of nucleic acids which is made of from millions of nucleotides. Nucleotide is a basic unit of building a long strand of DNA - just like building a house; the basic units are the bricks, concretes and etc.
What is so mysterious about DNA?
Since it's a small structure with approximately 2.2 - 2.6 nanometers wide, it contains a genetic code that can be deciphered to unveiled the secrets of our body. Advances in DNA technology enable us to unlock the secrets of our body as to search for the meaning of mankind.
You look like your mom...you'd got the eyes just like your father...you're as strong as your uncle...
These traits can be explained as it is related to genes - genetic information that inherited from our parents - possibly contains sub-information about our ancestors. DNA can be treated as our entity - a living proof that makes us adapting to all sorts of surroundings.
This represents how humans are enabling to survive since human population had reached more than 6.6 billion as recorded on July 2007.
How do we look different among each other?
All of us differ to the type DNA - means that each of us has DNA which has different genetic information except individual twins who has identical DNA. People often being mislead by assuming fingerprint is similar to DNA.
Actually, humans have their own distinctive fingerprints and DNA but individual twins have different fingerprints. However, differences of DNA among races based on their appearances (phenotypic traits) have yet able to be distinguished as we need more time and effort to map and identify common distinctive traits at the DNA level.

Discovery of DNA Teaches Us About Motivation

2008-03-10T15:09:00.000-07:00

Besides knowing what DNA stands for - which means "Deoxyribonucleic Acid", there are few things that we might have overlooked. The discovery of DNA model has lead many scientists in encrypting codes of life which could bring us closer to humanity and self-assurance.
DNA replicates in cells when the environment permits them to do so. During DNA replication, new strand of DNA will be duplicated based on the DNA template which acts as a mould. The new DNA strand elongates in which the nucleotides are attached to each other based on sequences of the DNA template. It is like a building-blocks model, it has different color blocks and you use these color blocks to build a tower or a building.
What personal insights that we gain into the discovery of DNA?
In order to start a task, or a project, it must begin with building a foundation. Building a foundation must be based on proper sequences. Similarly in DNA replication process, it begins with a DNA template that allows nucleotides bind at it with joining one nucleotide at a time.
At the same time, a chemical bond is formed among nucleotides which also produce the backbone structure for the newly-formed strand DNA. Things would become awry when you started a project with weak foundation - it like having a sand foundation; things will crumble easily even though you are just getting started.
The newly formed DNA strand eventually matures and become one DNA template in the next DNA replication. It is like a life-cycle - what comes around goes around. Basically, building a foundation is an on-going process; it stops when it is done.
The nucleotides are subsequently joined together by grouping one nucleotide at a time. Creating a product requires sequences. Simple small steps should be taken before making a product. Each small step is crucial in such a way to define our objectives or goals that is essential to our success.
As a matter of fact, we learn to sequence things since young and it has proven that our focuses on life can be maintained as we reached different stages of life.
In the blooming of DNA technology era, DNA testing has been introduced to various fields that have increase popularity of the noble DNA structure which has celebrated 50 years of its discovery. DNA testing has raised humanity issues such as tracking down our ancestor lines. As we know that our DNA contains genes that inherited by our parents, it is possible that we can have track down our ancestors based on modern DNA testing procedures.
DNA is a unique structure that stores millions of information about inheritance. Some of this information is passed from one generation to the other. Ancestor search show us about our existence, and how we are connected to each other.
Each of us has an identity - it means that we have our own distinctive DNA fingerprint. Our DNA fingerprint is like our entity - it is private and protected according to civil rights. There is nothing to be ashamed of being different than others.
Knowing our existence helps us to understand ourselves better including pin-pointing our strengths and weaknesses. These could improve your ability to communicate with people especially in broadening social networking.
There had been several cases about exoneration of wrongfully imprisoned convicts over the past few years. It takes perseverance and patience for them to find new taste of life. DNA testing has given them fresh of life and brought justice back to them. People have gain insight into the plight of the innocent prisoners, as they have begun appreciating the values of life. It has taught us to be firm at making decisions and be brave to make a stand against criticisms.
The discovery of DNA creates precedence of current DNA testing technology that leads us to a promising future.

Cosmetics And DNA

2008-03-10T15:08:00.000-07:00

Think of Pamela Anderson Lee figure model displaying the perfect tone body on billboard advertisements on the highway.
Think of photo shopped pictures of celebrities on pages of magazine.
Think of how the plastic surgery enhancement crazes mania amongst the Hollywood celebrities.
With all these obsession about a certain small thing that we described as outlook, people use to turn to cosmetics enhancement procedures like invasive plastic surgery that involves scalpels, lasers and injections or now, a new trend that doesn't need operation procedure but it's called DNA magic.
Cosmetics company, Valmont, sells a concoction called Cellular DNA complex which they claimed made from 'specially treated salmon roe DNA' at the price of £236 for seven phials.
The enhancement features include moisturizing, regenerating and protecting of DNA. Does smearing specially treated salmon DNA on your face will do wonders?
To vanish those wrinkles on our face forever, the biggest anti-ageing advancement since Botox declared by Clients of Dermagenetics have changed our way we think about beauty products.
If their claims are true, that also means that we have wasted on the money on beauty products that actually are doing us more harm than good. In the procedures, a patient is sent a kit, which includes two cotton swab and a return envelope.
They are asked to rub the swab along the inner cheek ten to 12 times before leaving it to dry and sending it back for testing. Experts will measure the genetic propensity for collagen breakdown, wrinkling, skin ageing, and their skin's ability to tolerate environmental pollutants and overall skin health from the cells.
Within a fortnight, clients will be sent a tailor made night cream that contains various minerals, enzymes, herbal extracts and acids specifically balanced to suit them.
But is this a clever marketing campaign to make money faster by blinding people with science? It also makes us believe that understanding our own DNA can reverse the ageing process?
European and American legislators have established a policy of closely scrutinizing any anti-ageing claims for cosmetic products.
However, we can't deny that one extremely effective tool would be a product that helps cells to repair DNA damage.
Existence of a liposome like vesicle containing either T4 endonuclease V or a photolyase from cyanobacteria is industrially manufactures and their effectiveness has been proven beyond doubt.
The former has appointed as a drug in the USA and Japan to treat genetic disease xeroderma pigmentosum.
Importance and deep interest in this issue only pointed out our desires: to find products that would not only have cosmetic value for the skin but would surely benefit the rest of our bodies.

Using DNA Testing

2008-03-10T14:58:00.002-07:00

DNA testing is by far the most effective and accurate means by which a biological relationship can be said to exist between one person and another. Whether that be through traditional paternity testing or alternatively testing some more distant relationship (usually in order to determine paternity), such as avuncular testing or grandparentage testing, there are a number of significant reasons for using DNA testing where disputes or potential discrepancies arise. Whilst there is a minimal margin for error in any testing, DNA testing is the most accurate form of establishing relationships available, which makes it ideal for use in a number of scenarios.
Legal Use One of the most common uses for DNA testing is for legal reasons. There are a number of legal scenarios where paternity, or family relationships become important to the outcome of a case. Whether that be an intestate inheritance dispute, where determining family relationships could have a significant bearing on the execution of a particular estate, or some child law reason, DNA testing is one of the most accurate ways of picking up on genetic relationships which can provide the necessary proof for determining the correct legal outcome. As a result of its increased effectiveness over other methods of detection, nothing compares to DNA testing for accurately determining family relations.
Medical Use Medical use is the other major field of practice for DNA testing. In medical situations, it can often be important to determine biological relationships in determining potential exposure to certain genetic conditions and in matching suitability for certain treatments. As medical research continues to advance, so too DNA testing becomes more high profile and more widely used in general practice as a far more conclusive way of identifying family relationships where is matters most.
"Curiosity" Testing Whilst testing doesn't usually require maternal DNA samples, the at-home, or so-called Curiosity test is a good way to get peace of mind or to determine with some conclusivity whether or not you share a family relationship with another person - mostly a child. By testing oral swabs through a DNA testing kit normally sent to the client, the at-home testing is both easy to effect and accurate in producing results for determining DNA links where paternity is in question. For personal reasons or just for the sheer curiosity, the at-home test is far less controlled by protocol, but nevertheless can come up with accurate results where a particular relationship exists.
DNA testing is becoming more and more available, as the most accurate means of testing relationships. Where there is at least some degree of relationship, there is nothing more effective at determining genetic relationships than DNA testing, particularly in light of the advances in testing technology in recent years. From paternity testing through to siblingship testing and even grandparentage testing, using a DNA test can be a cost-effective and accurate way to determine whether or not alleged relationships do in fact exist. With that in mind, DNA testing should be your first choice of action should a family disputes arise on a biological relationship.

Testing Different Relationships with DNA Testing

2008-03-10T14:58:00.001-07:00

DNA profiling technology has come a long way in the last few decades, and it is now possible to identify a number of difference biological relationships between any given person. Through using slightly more in-depth matching processes than with traditional DNA paternity tests, the wider testing methods available are nevertheless accurate enough to determine whether or not there is some biological connection to establish relationships and afford peace of mind, allowing families to greater understand their actual setup and resolve legal and medical disputes.
Paternity Testing Probably the most common relationship examined with DNA testing is paternity testing. The methods used in this type of testing have improved to mean a greater degree of accuracy in judging where relationships do or do not exist. Whether it be for legal, medical or even just personal reasons, paternity testing is by far the most effective way of determining in just a few days whether or not a biological relationship exists between two people.
Grandparentage DNA Testing In the absence of the alleged father of a child it is possible to determine a biological relationship with grandparents where either one or both are available. This can be particularly useful to determine biological links where the father has predeceased or alternatively where he is otherwise unavailable through testing. Whilst it is desirable for both grandparents to be present for testing, for reasons of ensuring greater accuracy and more conclusive results, it is also possible for the test to be carried out on one grandparent with a degree of accuracy in matching DNA.
Siblingship DNA Testing An alternative testable relationship is that of siblingship - identifying whether two particular people share the same parents, where neither parent is available for testing themselves, for example having predeceased or having emigrated abroad. Whilst the most effective determiner is through testing both the mother and the father of the alleged siblings, it is more than possible to test the siblings on a DNA comparison to work out whether there is a relationship there.
Y-STR Male Lineage Testing One of the most innovative DNA testing methods refined in recent years is the Y-STR male lineage test which allows identification of male biological relationships through testing the Y-chromosome which is passed down paternal lines and rarely changes throughout generations, allowing for more straightforward DNA comparisons. With Y-STR testing, it's possible to identify grandfather/grandson relationships, or even further relationships along vertical family branches.
Avuncular DNA Testing It is also possible to examine where Avuncular relationships may be exist by testing the brother or sister of an unavailable parent, to determine whether a particular two people share a relationship of aunt or uncle with one another. This can be particularly useful in helping assess paternity where a father has predeceased with living siblings, who can be matched to the alleged niece or nephew.
Whether you require a DNA test for medical reasons, legal reasons such as determining inheritance in intestacy, or just for your own personal motivations, testing biological relations has never been easier than with DNA testing.

Dean Ornish Shows How To Reverse Prostate Cancer With Nutrigenomics

2008-03-10T14:56:00.000-07:00

You can reverse prostate cancer and many of the diseases associated with aging by changing your diet.
Sounds unbelievable, but it's true.
It's a finding reported by Dr. Dean Ornish in his new book The Spectrum.
I've already told you how Dr. Ornish showed 30 years ago that it's possible to reverse heart disease by eating a plant-based diet, exercising, meditating, practicing yoga, and being part of a supportive group.
In The Spectrum, he goes even further.
He shows that these same principles of healthy living can also reverse cancer and other diseases of aging.
And he explains exactly why this is possible.
His findings are nothing short of groundbreaking. And with the current dismal state of our healthcare system, they're more urgently needed than ever before.
This country pays $100 billion a year for invasive bypass surgeries that aren't very effective and don't even extend life. We spend $15 billion a year for Lipitor, which comes with plenty of unpleasant side effects.
But now Dr. Ornish has shown that his program of lifestyle changes is more effective and a lot cheaper than drugs and surgery. And the side effects -- like weight loss and extra energy -- are positive ones.
Astounding Results
Patients everywhere -- including my own -- have been seeing real results from Dr. Ornish's program.
One of my patients is a 65-year-old man who had both heart disease (which was being "treated" with drugs and angioplasties) and prostate cancer.
But we got him working to improve his nutrition and exercise. After 5 years, tests showed that the blocked arteries in his heart were dramatically better. And his prostate cancer was gone, too.
He even called me on his birthday that year to say that he felt healthier at age 70 than he had at 60. He was off all medications and feeling great.
This is what's possible when you change your lifestyle.
Because, as Dr. Ornish explains in The Spectrum, when you change your lifestyle -- the foods you eat, the activity you get, the way you manage stress and relationships -- you also change your genes.
Compelling Research
Dr. Ornish's program really works -- and he's done the research to prove it.
For example, he studied 93 men with prostate cancer who were practicing "watchful waiting" (waiting to see if their cancer worsened before getting conventional treatment).
Half the group kept their usual lifestyle. The other half followed the lifestyle program described in The Spectrum.
The results were stunning. Dr. Ornish found that prostate cancer growth was reduced by 70 percent in the group that followed his program.
Four years later, only six of the lifestyle program patients needed conventional treatment -- compared to 21 control patients.
Those results are impressive, but even more intriguing is the evidence that Dr. Ornish's approach can actually affect your genes.
As I've explained before, changing your lifestyle can switch different genes on and off. Using food to do is called nutrigenomics.
In The Spectrum, Dr. Ornish talks about research on telemores -- the little repair systems on the end of your chromosomes that protect your DNA. The shorter the telomeres, the shorter your life.
The research he describes found that mothers who felt the most stressed actually had the shortest telomeres -- equal to about an extra decade of aging!
So Dr. Ornish applied his comprehensive lifestyle changes and found that the telomerase (the enzyme that keeps telomeres healthy) was higher.
The result? Reversal of the aging effects of chronic stress!
Let me repeat: You can reverse the effects of stress on your genes -- and on the aging process - just by changing your lifestyle.
As Dr. Ornish describes in The Spectrum, this means eating a plant-based diet of whole foods, getting regular exercise, and managing stress.
I could continue to tell you how instrumental Dr. Ornish's work has been, or how it has arrived at the time when we need it most.
I could tell you that he has been a fearless advocate for good health and that he's overcome countless obstacles to change medicine, healthcare policy, and the insurance industry.
On a personal level, I could tell you that I've rarely met a more courageous person with a more generous heart.
But don't take it from me. Take a look at his work.
It's all there, in his new book, The Spectrum.
Again, I urge you to read this powerful account of Dr. Ornish's research. While you're at it, share a copy with your doctor, your loved ones, and even your congressperson.
Remember, you can change your genes -- and your life - simply by changing the way you live.

DNA Markers for Genealogy

2008-03-10T14:55:00.000-07:00

DNA Markers for Genealogy - Mitochondrial DNA Genealogy
Who else wants to know about DNA markers for genealogy? Here is a simple scientific test to trace your ancestors. Did you know that DNA From One Generation To The Other Is Almost Conclusive Evidence. This breakthrough in genealogy research has been making headlines for the past several years with some astounding proof of kinship between some very prominent historical figures.
DNA testing for family tree is not only convenient, but also simple. You find a genealogy testing company either in the phone book of on the Internet. Next, make an appointment and go to the company on your assigned day, fill out the forms, pay the fee and your good to go. The DNA genealogy test starts with a mouth swab of your mouth near the cheek. Many companies give you a kit so you can do the mouth swab at home and mail in the results to the laboratory. After the laboratory tests the DNA, the results are sent back to testee.
Wide DNA Databases Compare
The company doing the genealogy DNA testing will obviously need to have access to DNA databases which they will use to make comparisons and once these comparisons show their results, the company will then send you the results regarding whom your DNA swab matched with. You should realize that each and every cell is sure to have your DNA and whether it is your sperm or egg cells or even the sex cells, you will be providing your own unique DNA for further matching.
Parents Pinpointed
Listen closely. Genealogy DNA testing is helpful in pinpointing an individual's parentage and it can be used extensively when you need to know who the mother is, and also in case of adoptions. Thus, it is easy to see how genealogy DNA testing can help with creating your family tree because your DNA will have been passed from one generation to the next and the information pertaining to your ancestors will be encoded therein.
The Egg The Sperm
When your sperm and also egg cell combine together, a new cell is created that will hold DNA from either parent and when genealogy DNA testing is performed in specialist laboratories, they will help provide evidence whether you are related to another person with a matching DNA. What's more, the chances of two persons having identical DNA are very small with the exception of identical twins which are due to the fact that their DNA is identical because the fertilized egg had split and formed two fetuses obtained from a single sperm and also from the same egg.
Cutting Edge Medical Science Genealogy DNA Testing
Just imagine, as DNA is passed from generation to generation there is very little change in its structure. This is amazing and is the primary reason to use DNA markers for genealogy testing to explore your ancestry. In no time at all, the link between families can be nailed down and makes the construction of a family tree that much more reliable and accurate. And new advances are being made in medical science to enhance and improve the DNA testing for family tree.

DNA Results Returned for Puppy Killing Marines

2008-03-10T14:54:00.002-07:00

A new human subspecies crawled forth from a Marine Corp tent in Iraq this week. Not one, but two of these hideous specimens were spotted tossing a puppy off a cliff just moments after they'd been seen picking each other's noses.
Scientist immediately collected DNA samples to determine whether or not these two advanced forms of primordial scum were in anyway genetically similar to a former Atlanta Falcons Quarterback unearthed last year in North America.
According to Evolutionary Geneticist Dr. Kilem Freaks of Gingivitis State University. "It's rare to discover one hominid subspecies that evolved without a spine, well enough two on two continents." He went on two add, "The DNA similarities are quite astonishing. In fact we are rerunning the test just to be sure, but it appears Michael Vick may actually be the lost love-child of these two murderous Marines. Oorah!
While a team of scientists continue there in-depth research, Congress Woman Stella Lize-Themall proposed that the nation's cities abandon their fanatically floundering and failed Breed Specific Legislation (BS Legislation) attempts and move on to a more logical approach to cleansing the mammalian gene pool of defective DNA. Lize-Themall suggested Human Specific Legislation. The four guiding principals of the legislation are as follows.
1) Removal from the Gene Pool - Puppy murderers and dog fighters would be immediately castrated or sterilized with the exact same amount of anesthetic they gave the dogs before abusing them. Any living children of these offenders would also be immediately spayed/neutered to appease BS supporters who feel genes determine everything.
2) No Cost to the Public - Bills to recoup financial costs for the sterilization and incarceration of this spineless hominid subspecies will be sent to whatever pro ball team or armed forces branch they belong to. If they are not a member of any such organization, I'll happily pay the bill!
3) Reuse and Recycle - The supply of extremely tiny little balls resulting from the castrations will be sent to HuMenue Foods and ground into prison cafeteria food.
4) Decreasing the Trade Deficit - There will be a mandatory 40 year incarceration after castration. Then these ball-less, spineless creatures will be embedded in clear plastic and sold as displays to casinos in Beijing.
Meantime, an anonymous source reports that the city of Denver Colorado has offered both Marines a spot on the town council in the event they are bitch-slapped out of the service, as they should be. One of the Marines involved is reported to have responded to the offer by saying, "Denver? Isn't that there one of them fancy Omelet things? I used to light chickens on fire back on the farm."

The DNA Evolution

2008-03-10T14:54:00.001-07:00

In the schools of Thelemic influence, the evolution and realisation of the being (soul) is described as the EMANCIPATION. Modern Spiritual Physics rather speak of METAMORPHOSIS, thus extending the concept of an illuminated spiritual path not only towards â€œrecoveryâ€ and â€œawakeningâ€, but also of the attainment of new heights and a new piritual â€œconquestâ€.
The Ascension schools put the emphasis on the process of ASCENSION, underlining the importance of a coordinated and complete evolution on all the planes of existence and reality of the being. All the schools, from the most traditional to the most modern, see evolution as the realisation of an evolutional process through multidimensional experiences of this particular Universe and describe a spiritual but also a physical evolution that occurs. Nonetheless, the concept of physical evolution must be extended to a holistic system far greater than the current terrestrial sensorial experience.
The path towards CONSCIENCE (its integration, re-composition and re-evolution) can be taken through various possible â€œwaysâ€ that begin at different points: the evolution of the states of consciousness through Meditation, Ceremonial Magick or, for instance, the Kabala, the awakening of the spiritual and vital energies based on Alchemy and the work on the Chakras, the completeness of the Androgen through Tantrism, the recovery of the Archetypes and the re-awakening of the internal senses according to Spiritual Physics.
Ascension schools also put the emphasis on the process of reactivation of the nitrogen basis that compose human DNA (two strands today of what should be over 3 billion). In order to position this last assertion in the proper context and integrate it with the knowledge divulged on this website, it is important to firstly make a few mental connections and keep in mind a couple of elements as follows:
-The composition of matter and its â€œbase bricksâ€ -The connection between Alchemic Elements and Temporal Matrices (therefore Derivative Laws) -The relationship between the base bricks of matter and Thought -The relationship between the sub-conscious and the soul personalities along with their ideal functionalities on more planes of reality (multidimensional incarnation concept) -The relationship between the concept of reality, the archetypes, the 163 elements and the internal senses, therefore -The relationship between thought/complexity, awareness/perception, derivative laws, the elements and DNA as the programmed pillar and structure of our species DNA is the internal memory (mental and emotional) of every particle and cell of time and space. This memory can potentially contain the entire history from the beginning of creation until the present time. DNA, through the sequences of the genetic code, is the core conservation and transmission program for universal information.
The decoding of the human genome leaves us with a lot of interrogations. It is clear that the entire DNA structure is potentially useful and refers to a more complete existence that we no longer have access to for various reasons connected to our alien and terrestrial history. Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine correspond to the alchemic elements or air, fire, water and earth and establish a certain â€œorderâ€ within us, which also supports our vital, psycho-physical and spiritual functions.
We know that each alchemic element corresponds to a precise order of matrices of derivative laws that constitute the structure of our quarks and base matter. These are sensitive to THOUGHT and are closely related to the plane of existence that we are able to perceive with our senses, both external and internal, as well as the applicable archetypes. It is all connected.
With regards to human life on this planet to the extent of what we know today, approximately 200,000 years ago the Sirians disseminated the red race, the Pleiadians (180,000 years ago) the yellow race and the Sirian-Assirians (150,000 years ago) the black race. Therefore in a sense the first human beings disseminated by the Sirians could count on a structural level of awareness (both physical and light bodies) based on 36,000 active base pairs. These pairs progressively reduced to the two we currently have and therefore suffered a redimensioning (literally, from a dimensional point of view) of the concept of reality.
Until not too long ago, the base pairs were actually 12 and the astrological system was a method to decode it, with the 12 corresponding zodiacal signs which established a convention for the interpretation of human character.
Therefore, spiritual and physical complexity go hand in hand, which helps us understand what is meant by Metamorphosis and Complete Ascension. Ideally, an initiatic path prepares the etheric level for the recovery and reactivation of DNA. It may follow a certain course, described below using the conventional terms our of friends of the School of Global Ascension, but this can be listed differently:
â€¢ Initiate, 3,000 â€¢ Bodhisattva, 6,000 â€¢ Mahavisnu, 15,000 â€¢ Third Dimension Conscience: 36,000 â€¢ Level of Oneness, 200,000 â€¢ True Friend of God, 1,000,000 â€¢ Passage to Fourth Dimension: 5,000,000 â€¢ Passage to Fifth Dimension: 25,000,000 â€¢ Passage to 25th Dimension: 100,000,000 â€¢ And so on and so forth until the Realisation of Conscience and Divinisation of Reality, 3,000,000,000
It is therefore all connected: participation and extended dimensions, archetypes, internal senses, illumination, awakening of the inner god, use of thought, etc. However we wish to call it, the process begins, extends and reaches realisation, consistently co-involving hand in hand the sphere of intimate awareness, etheric bodies and those that are exquisitely physical. All of which is reciprocal and directly reflected on the concept of reality.

Nanotechnology At The Hebrew University Of Jerusalem

2008-03-10T14:53:00.001-07:00

Introduction
The Hebrew University's Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology takes an interdisciplinary approach to meet the challenges of this new and exciting field. Bringing together researchers from a number of departments, the Center begins with a unit for nanoscopic characterization to "see," identify, and describe the nanometric structure the researchers have created. The Center intends to construct a unit for nanofabrication where nanometric structures will be built.
Materials that have been shrunk to a nanoscale often display very different properties from the corresponding materials in a normal macroscale, and this enables unique applications. For example, opaque substances can become transparent, inert materials sometimes develop into catalysts or suddenly become combustible, solids might turn into liquids at room temperature, and insulators like silicon can be transformed into conductors. Much of the current allure of nanotechnology has been generated from the unique phenomena that certain materials exhibit at the nanoscale.
The techniques developed in the last few years have made it possible to assemble tiny molecules into almost any structure. These methods are now being used today to create an amazing variety of useful chemicals, like pharmaceuticals and commercial polymers.
Wide-Ranging Nano-Applications
The Hebrew University's unique interdisciplinary approach leads to research that has applications in a number of industries:
* Semiconductors. Work is being carried out on nanostructured semiconductors, superconductors, and composite materials.
* Medicine. Systems are under development that trap single cells to study and quantify them down to the molecular level.
* Telecommunications. Research is being carried out in nanophotonics and on optofluidic components and devices to provide smaller, faster and more versatile options for telecomunication.
Through the efforts and resources of Yissum, Hebrew University's active Technology Transfer Services organization, a number of these projects in nanotechnology are already on the path toward commercial success. A composite thin film composed of sol-gels with metals and nano-particles is at a stage where it is ready for testing as an anti-corrosion coating for the automotive industry and a non-viral delivery method for gene therapy is ready for testing for various applications.
Selected Researchers
Almost 30 researchers currently lead and develop cutting-edge projects for the Center. Cooperation between these multidisciplinary scientists enables development of a true understanding of the environment in which the 1-100 nanometer objects created by the researchers exist and operate.
The Center's researchers are drawn from across the scientific spectrum at this Technology Transfer University.
* Department of physical chemistry: Danny Porath and Uri Banin are studying DNA nanoelectronics and nanoparticles in a variety of applications, respectively.
* Department of inorganic chemistry: Daniel Mandler and Shlomo Yitzchaik are involved in the production of sol-gel and ultra-thin films.
* Faculty of medicine: Dan Gazit is working on nanotechnology-based skeletal tissue engineering and gene therapy.
Marketing and legal professionals from Yissum work together with all of the Center's researchers to "transfer" the technology from the laboratory to the market.
It appears that as our view of the world becomes more and more global, science needs to focus on smaller and smaller matters to prepare us for the future.

Get To Know The DNA Of Sucess System

2008-03-10T14:43:00.000-07:00

We - you, me, and hundreds of thousands of people - spend $1000's on self-help books, tapes and seminars and NEVER see the results we expect and desperately want. There had to be a better solution, one that actually worked....
The Self Help industry, Motivational Experts and Success Coaches - even though they mean well (God bless them) and genuinely want you to be successful - they are stunting, maybe even permanently destroying your chance to be successful and they don't even know it.
By the way, I do have good news for you!
When you are finished reading this letter you will have a simple, never before revealed, step-by-step blueprint of how to achieve exactly what you want in life and the true cause for success in life - including making more money, complete time freedom, unshakeable confidence, a fulfilling marriage, a loving family, whatever you desire - and it's easier then you think.

COmbined DNA Index System-CODIS

2008-03-10T14:40:00.000-07:00

CODIS (COmbined DNA Index System), an electronic database of DNA profiles that can identify suspects, is similar to the AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System) database. Every State in the Nation is in the process of implementing a DNA index of individuals convicted of certain crimes, such as rape, murder, and child abuse. Upon conviction and sample analysis, perpetrators' DNA profiles are entered into the DNA database. Just as fingerprints found at a crime scene can be run through AFIS in search of a suspect or link to another crime scene, DNA profiles from a crime scene can be entered into CODIS. Therefore, law enforcement officers have the ability to identify possible suspects when no prior suspect existed.

Evidence Collection and Preservation

2008-03-10T14:39:00.000-07:00

Investigators and laboratory personnel should work together to determine the most probative pieces of evidence and to establish priorities. Although this brochure is not intended as a manual for DNA evidence collection, every officer should be aware of important issues involved in the identification, collection, transportation, and storage of DNA evidence. These issues are as important for the first responding patrol officer as they are for the experienced detective and the crime scene specialist. Biological material may contain hazardous pathogens such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the hepatitis B virus that can cause potentially lethal diseases. Given the sensitive nature of DNA evidence, officers should always contact their laboratory personnel or evidence collection technicians when collection questions arise.
Contamination Because extremely small samples of DNA can be used as evidence, greater attention to contamination issues is necessary when identifying, collecting, and preserving DNA evidence. DNA evidence can be contaminated when DNA from another source gets mixed with DNA relevant to the case. This can happen when someone sneezes or coughs over the evidence or touches his/her mouth, nose, or other part of the face and then touches the area that may contain the DNA to be tested. Because a new DNA technology called "PCR" replicates or copies DNA in the evidence sample, the introduction of contaminants or other unintended DNA to an evidence sample can be problematic. With such minute samples of DNA being copied, extra care must be taken to prevent contamination. If a sample of DNA is submitted for testing, the PCR process will copy whatever DNA is present in the sample; it cannot distinguish between a suspect's DNA and DNA from another source.To avoid contamination of evidence that may contain DNA, always take the following precautions:
Wear gloves. Change them often.
Use disposable instruments or clean them thoroughly before and after handling each sample.
Avoid touching the area where you believe DNA may exist.
Avoid talking, sneezing, and coughing over evidence.
Avoid touching your face, nose, and mouth when collecting and packaging evidence.
Air-dry evidence thoroughly before packaging.
Put evidence into new paper bags or envelopes, not into plastic bags. Do not use staples.
Transportation and storageWhen transporting and storing evidence that may contain DNA, it is important to keep the evidence dry and at room temperature. Once the evidence has been secured in paper bags or envelopes, it should be sealed, labeled, and transported in a way that ensures proper identification of where it was found and proper chain of custody. Never place evidence that may contain DNA in plastic bags because plastic bags will retain damaging moisture. Direct sunlight and warmer conditions also may be harmful to DNA, so avoid keeping evidence in places that may get hot, such as a room or police car without air conditioning. For long-term storage issues, contact your local laboratory.
Elimination samplesAs with fingerprints, the effective use of DNA may require the collection and analysis of elimination samples. It often is necessary to use elimination samples to determine whether the evidence comes from the suspect or from someone else. An officer must think ahead to the time of trial and possible defenses while still at the crime scene. For example, in the case of a residential burglary where the suspect may have drunk a glass of water at the crime scene, an officer should identify appropriate people, such as household members, for future elimination sample testing. These samples may be needed for comparison with the saliva found on the glass to determine whether the saliva is valuable evidence. In homicide cases, be sure to collect the victim's DNA from the medical examiner at the autopsy, even if the body is badly decomposed. This may serve to identify an unknown victim or distinguish between the victim's DNA and other DNA found at the crime scene. When investigating rape cases, it may be necessary to collect and analyze the DNA of the victim's recent consensual partners, if any, to eliminate them as potential contributors of DNA suspected to be from the perpetrator. If this is necessary, it is important to approach the victim with extreme sensitivity and provide a full explanation of why the request is being made. When possible, the help of a qualified victim advocate should be enlisted for assistance.

Identifying DNA Evidence

2008-03-10T14:35:00.000-07:00

Since only a few cells can be sufficient to obtain useful DNA information to help your case, the list below identifies some common items of evidence that you may need to collect, the possible location of the DNA on the evidence, and the biological source containing the cells. Remember that just because you cannot see a stain does not mean there are not enough cells for DNA typing. Further, DNA does more than just identify the source of the sample; it can place a known individual at a crime scene, in a home, or in a room where the suspect claimed not to have been. It can refute a claim of self-defense and put a weapon in the suspect's hand. It can change a story from an alibi to one of consent. The more officers know how to use DNA, the more powerful a tool it becomes

What is dna?

2008-03-10T14:31:00.001-07:00

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the fundamental building block for an individual's entire genetic makeup. It is a component of virtually every cell in the human body. Further, a person's DNA is the same in every cell. For example, the DNA in a man's blood is the same as the DNA in his skin cells, semen, and saliva. DNA is a powerful tool because each person's DNA is different from every other individual's, except for identical twins. Because of that difference, DNA collected from a crime scene can either link a suspect to the evidence or eliminate a suspect, similar to the use of fingerprints. It also can identify a victim through DNA from relatives, even when no body can be found. And when evidence from one crime scene is compared with evidence from another, those crime scenes can be linked to the same perpetrator locally, statewide, and across the Nation. Forensically valuable DNA can be found on evidence that is decades old. However, several factors can affect the DNA left at a crime scene, including environmental factors (e.g., heat, sunlight, moisture, bacteria, and mold). Therefore, not all DNA evidence will result in a usable DNA profile. Further, just like fingerprints, DNA testing cannot tell officers when the suspect was at the crime scene or for how long.
Where Is DNA Contained in the Human Body? DNA is contained in blood, semen, skin cells, tissue, organs, muscle, brain cells, bone, teeth, hair, saliva, mucus, perspiration, fingernails, urine, feces, etc.
Where can DNA evidence be found at a crime scene? DNA evidence can be collected from virtually anywhere. DNA has helped solve many cases when imaginative investigators collected evidence from nontraditional sources (see "Identifying DNA Evidence"). One murder was solved when the suspect's DNA, taken from saliva in a dental impression mold, matched the DNA swabbed from a bite mark on the victim. A masked rapist was convicted of forced oral copulation when his victim's DNA matched DNA swabbed from the suspect's penis 6 hours after the offense. Numerous cases have been solved by DNA analysis of saliva on cigarette butts, postage stamps, and the area around the mouth opening on ski masks. DNA analysis of a single hair (without the root) found deep in the victim's throat provided a critical piece of evidence used in a capital murder conviction.